Catharism (Albigenses)
Years: 1146 - 1321
Catharism (from Greek: katharoi, "the pure") is a Christian dualist movement that thrives in some areas of Southern Europe, particularly northern Italy and southern France, between the 12th and 14th centuries.
Cathar beliefs vary between communities because Catharism is initially taught by ascetic priests who set few guidelines.
The Cathars are a direct challenge to the Catholic Church, which renounces its practices and dismisses it outright as the Church of Satan.
Catharism has its roots in the Paulician movement in Armenia and the Bogomils of Bulgaria, which had taken influences from the Paulicians.
Though the term "Cathar" has been used for centuries to identify the movement, whether the movement identified itself with this name is debatable.
In Cathar texts, the terms "Good Men" (Bons Hommes) or "Good Christians" are the common terms of self-identification.
The idea of two Gods or principles, one being good the other evil, is central to Cathar beliefs.
The good God is the God of the New Testament and the creator of the spiritual realm, as opposed to the bad God, whom many Cathars identify as Satan, creator of the physical world of the Old Testament.
All visible matter, including the human body, was created by Satan; it was therefore tainted with sin.
This is the antithesis to the monotheistic Catholic Church, whose fundamental principle is that there is only one God who created all things visible and invisible.
Cathars think human souls are the genderless souls of Angels trapped within the physical creation of Satan, cursed to be reincarnated until the Cathar faithful achieve salvation through a ritual called the Consolamentum.
From the beginning of his reign, Pope Innocent III attempts to use diplomacy to end Catharism, but in the year 1208 Innocent's papal legate Pierre de Castelnau is murdered while returning to Rome after preaching the Catholic faith in southern France.
With the option of sending Catholic missionaries and jurists extinguished, Pope Innocent III declares Pierre of Castelnau a martyr and launches the Albigensian Crusade.
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West Europe (1108 – 1251 CE): Capetian Consolidation, Angevin Empire, and the Medieval Maritime Axis
Between 1108 and 1251 CE, Western Europe entered a transformative century of expansion and consolidation.
From the vineyards of Provence to the harbors of Flanders, the Capetians, Angevins, and their rivals knit together a dynamic web of kingdoms, communes, and trade corridors.
It was an age of Gothic cathedrals and fortified towns, of heresy and crusade, and of merchants whose routes stretched from Bordeaux and Marseille to Bruges and Venice.
The Capetian monarchy solidified the French heartland, the Angevin Empire linked England and Aquitaine, and the Low Countries’ cloth towns forged the commercial arteries of medieval Europe.
Geographic and Environmental Context
West Europe encompassed two great zones of medieval civilization:
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The Mediterranean south—Provence, Languedoc, and Roussillon—anchored on the Rhône Valley and the ports of Marseille, Narbonne, and Montpellier; and
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The Atlantic north—the Loire, Seine, and Gironde basins, stretching to the Low Countries’ river deltas and Flemish ports.
This landscape of rivers and coasts was threaded by trade routes: the Rhône–Saône corridor connecting Italy to the North Sea; the Loire and Seine valleys linking Paris to the ports; and the Champagne and Flanders fairs, the pulse of continental commerce.
From the Pyrenean passes to the dunes of Bruges, urbanization and royal consolidation remade Western Europe.
Climate and Environmental Shifts
The High Medieval climatic optimum fostered prosperity.
Longer growing seasons and stable weather supported vineyards, grain harvests, and demographic growth.
The Rhône and Loire valleys became agricultural heartlands, while Flanders and Champagne capitalized on river transport and grain imports.
Forests retreated before expanding farmland, and irrigation improved lowland productivity.
By the mid-13th century, subtle signs of variability—especially in southern viticulture—heralded the coming end of the climatic golden age.
Political and Dynastic Developments
Capetian France and the Angevin Challenge:
The Capetians of Paris gradually consolidated power against their Angevin and Plantagenet rivals.
Eleanor of Aquitaine, through her marriages to Louis VII (1137) and Henry II Plantagenet (1152), bound and then divided France’s destiny.
The resulting Angevin Empire, stretching from Normandy to Aquitaine and England, dominated Western Christendom.
Philip II Augustus (r. 1180–1223) decisively ended Angevin supremacy with the conquest of Normandy (1204) and victory at Bouvines (1214), establishing France’s royal hegemony.
Southern France and the Albigensian Crusade:
In the Languedoc, the Counts of Toulouse and Trencavel viscounts presided over wealthy, urbanized polities where the dualist Cathar heresy gained followers among townspeople and nobles.
The Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229), sanctioned by Pope Innocent III, crushed the movement and destroyed the independence of southern France.
The Treaty of Paris (1229) brought Languedoc under Capetian control; inquisitorial institutions and Dominican preaching followed in its wake.
Provence and the Mediterranean Crown:
Provence, a thriving courtly center of troubadour culture, passed under Angevin control in the 1240s, linking it politically to Naples and Sicily.
The Kingdom of Arles faded into papal and imperial diplomacy, while Lyon rose as both mercantile hub and ecclesiastical council seat.
Corsica, long contested, fell securely under Genoese influence, and Monaco emerged within the Genoese–Provençal maritime rivalry.
The Low Countries and the Northern Trade Axis:
In Flanders, Bruges, Ghent, and Ypres became industrial centers producing cloth for English wool, exported via the Channel ports.
The Champagne fairs connected northern Europe to Italy, bringing Lombard bankers into the royal orbit.
These northern markets financed monarchies and drew Italian capital into France’s emerging commercial infrastructure.
Economy and Trade
Agrarian Prosperity:
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The Mediterranean south specialized in vineyards, olives, and pastoralism.
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The Atlantic plains cultivated grain and exported surplus through Bordeaux, La Rochelle, and Nantes.
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The Jura and Pyrenean uplands produced salt, wool, and cheese for local trade.
Urban and Maritime Commerce:
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Marseille, Montpellier, and Narbonne served as Mediterranean entrepôts for Italian silks, Levantine spices, and woolen exports from the north.
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Lyon’s fairs linked the Rhône basin to the Champagne circuits.
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Bordeaux’s claret became the staple of Anglo-Gascon commerce, exported en masse to England.
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Flanders processed English wool into high-value textiles, while Bruges evolved into Europe’s early banking and maritime hub.
Monetary Integration:
New royal mints and Italian financiers stabilized coinage; the Capetian monarchy and northern communes advanced systems of credit and toll regulation that integrated regional markets.
Religion and Intellectual Life
Heresy and Orthodoxy:
The Cathar challenge in Languedoc provoked the Inquisition (post-1229) and the rise of the Dominican Order.
In northern France, Cistercians and Franciscans expanded monastic reform.
Chartres, Paris, and Toulouse grew into centers of scholastic learning, blending faith with emerging rationalism.
Art and Architecture:
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Gothic architecture matured with Chartres Cathedral (begun 1194) and Reims, epitomizing theological harmony in stone.
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Romanesque churches persisted in southern Provence and the Pyrenees.
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Troubadour lyric poetry in Occitan expressed secular and courtly ideals.
Movement and Interaction Corridors
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Rhône–Saône valley: Lyon ⇄ Avignon ⇄ Marseille — key artery for Mediterranean–Rhine commerce.
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Loire and Seine valleys: Paris ⇄ Tours ⇄ Orléans ⇄ Rouen ⇄ Channel ports — backbone of royal administration.
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Aquitaine coast: Bordeaux ⇄ La Rochelle ⇄ Bayonne ⇄ Bristol — English–French maritime link.
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Flanders–Champagne axis: Bruges ⇄ Ghent ⇄ Reims ⇄ Troyes ⇄ Genoa — Europe’s commercial hinge.
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Pyrenean passes and Provençal ports: Perpignan ⇄ Toulouse ⇄ Arles ⇄ Genoa — cross-Mediterranean exchange.
These corridors integrated agrarian hinterlands with an increasingly international maritime economy.
Adaptation and Resilience
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Feudal pluralism in France allowed local autonomy within royal consolidation.
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Urban communes balanced royal and seigneurial power, protecting civic liberties.
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Agrarian specialization diversified production between northern grain, southern wine, and maritime salt.
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Trade redundancy—multiple ports and inland routes—ensured recovery from warfare and crusade.
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Religious orders and urban guilds provided stability amid social change.
By adapting economically and institutionally, West Europe turned diversity into strength.
Long-Term Significance
By 1251 CE, Western Europe had crystallized into the framework of later France and the Low Countries:
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Capetian monarchy secured southern expansion and royal bureaucracy.
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The Angevin realm remained powerful but fractured, defining Franco-English rivalry.
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Flanders and Champagne stood at the forefront of international finance.
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Marseille, Montpellier, and Bordeaux embodied the Mediterranean–Atlantic continuum that would later power European exploration.
The region’s synthesis of royal centralization, mercantile networks, and cultural flowering marked the zenith of the High Middle Ages—and prepared France and its neighbors for the global age to come.
Mediterranean West Europe (1108 – 1251 CE): Albigensian Wars, Papal Provence, and Maritime Commerce
Geographic and Environmental Context
Mediterranean West Europe includes southern France (from the Rhône valley to the Pyrenees, plus Languedoc, Provence, and Roussillon), Monaco, and the island of Corsica.
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Anchors: the Rhône Valley (Avignon, Arles, Lyon, Beaucaire fairs), the southern Jura routes into Switzerland, the Provençal littoral (Marseille, Toulon, Nice, Monaco), the Languedoc plain (Carcassonne, Béziers, Toulouse’s southern hinterland, Montpellier), the Roussillon marches (Perpignan, Pyrenean passes), and Corsica under Genoese sway.
Climate and Environmental Shifts
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Still favorable overall, with first hints of variability in 13th c. viticulture.
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Rhône and Jura valleys remained fertile and well-populated.
Societies and Political Developments
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Counts of Toulouse reached their height; Trencavel viscounts held Carcassonne, Béziers, Albi.
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Cathar heresy (Albigensian movement) flourished in Languedoc towns.
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Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229): led by northern French barons and Papacy; devastated Languedoc, led to French royal absorption.
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Treaty of Paris (1229): annexed Toulouse lands to Capetian France.
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Provence: passed to Angevin dynasty in 1240s.
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Lyon grew as a mercantile–ecclesiastical city, hosting church councils.
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Corsica: Genoese dominance strengthened.
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Monaco and Nice fell increasingly into Genoese/Provençal rivalry.
Economy and Trade
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Ports (Marseille, Montpellier, Narbonne): exchanged wine, oil, wool for Italian silks, Levantine spices.
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Rhône traffic: Lyon’s fairs expanded; Jura passes carried salt, cloth, and cheese.
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Agriculture: vineyards and olives in Provence/Languedoc; sheep in Jura and Pyrenees.
Belief and Symbolism
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Cathar dualism challenged Catholic dominance.
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Inquisition launched after 1229.
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Monastic orders (Dominicans, Cistercians) expanded influence.
Long-Term Significance
By 1251, Languedoc was absorbed into Capetian France, Provence under Angevin Naples, Lyon a papal and mercantile hub, and Corsica under Genoese sway.
French knights make up the bulk of the steady flow of reinforcements throughout the two-hundred-year span of the Crusades, in such a fashion that the Arabs uniformly refer to the crusaders as Franj caring little whether they really come from France.
The French Crusaders also import the French language into the Levant, making French the base of the lingua franca (lit. "Frankish language") of the Crusader states.
French knights also comprise the majority in both the Hospital and the Temple orders.
The latter, in particular, hold numerous properties throughout France and by the thirteenth century were the principal bankers for the French crown, until Philip IV annihilates the order in 1307.
The Albigensian Crusade is launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars in the southwestern area of modern-day France.
In the end, the Cathars are exterminated and the autonomous County of Toulouse is annexed into the kingdom of France.
Later French kings expand their domain to cover over half of modern continental France, including most of the north, center and west of France.
Meanwhile, the royal authority become more and more assertive, centered on a hierarchically conceived society distinguishing nobility, clergy, and commoners.
The Albigensian Crusade and Its Impact on Atlantic West Europe (1209–1229)
Though centered in Languedoc, the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) had significant repercussions for Atlantic West Europe. The campaign, launched by Pope Innocent III to eliminate the Cathar heresy, led to the expansion of Capetian authority into southern France. Simon de Montfort, a key crusader leader, sought to consolidate his gains in regions adjacent to Aquitaine, creating tensions between the Capetian monarchy and the remnants of Angevin influence.
The eventual annexation of Toulouse in 1229 reinforced the Capetian hold over southern territories, indirectly affecting the balance of power in the western regions. By the mid-13th century, the French monarchy had gained greater control over its internal affairs, reducing the autonomy of rebellious nobles.
The Reign of Louis IX and the Strengthening of Royal Authority (1226–1252)
Following the brief rule of Louis VIII, his son Louis IX (Saint Louis) ascended to the throne in 1226. His reign saw a period of consolidation and stability, as he focused on judicial reforms and reinforcing the Parlement of Paris as a key instrument of royal justice.
While much of his reign was defined by his piety and involvement in the Seventh Crusade, his domestic policies strengthened the Capetian grip on Atlantic West Europe, particularly in Aquitaine, where he sought to check English influence. His treaties with Henry III of England helped stabilize territorial disputes, though tensions over Gascony persisted.
Louis IX's reign marks the close of the Lower High Medieval period, with the Capetians emerging as the dominant force in France, while the Plantagenets maintained their hold on England and parts of Atlantic West Europe, setting the stage for future conflicts.
The fall of Edessa in 1144 had shocked Christendom, causing Pope Eugenius III and St. Bernard of Clairvaux to preach a Second Crusade to reinforce Outremer.
Bernard passes from Toulouse into Germany, and the reported miracles that multiply almost at his every step undoubtedly contribute to the success of his mission.
Conrad III of Germany and his nephew Frederick Barbarossa receive the cross from the hand of Bernard.
The preaching in western Europe, as in the First Crusade, leads inadvertently to attacks on Jews.
A fanatical French monk named Rudolphe is apparently inspiring massacres of Jews in the Rhineland, Worms, …
…Speyer, …
…Cologne, and …
…Mainz, with Rudolphe claiming Jews are not contributing financially to the rescue of the Holy Land.
The Archbishop of Cologne and the Archbishop of Mainz are vehemently opposed to these attacks and ask Bernard to denounce them.
This he does, condemning the actions in strong terms, reminding the Crusaders that those who attacked the Jewish people during the previous Crusade came to a sorry end and were massacred to the last man by the Turks.
When the campaign continues, Bernard travels from Flanders to Germany to deal with the problems in person.
He then finds Rudolphe in Mainz and is able to silence him, returning him to his monastery.
Pope Eugenius comes in person to France to encourage the crusading enterprise.