Celts had crossed the Pyrenees into Spain in two major migrations in the ninth and the seventh centuries BCE.

The Celts had settled for the most part north of the Rio Duero and the Rio Ebro, where they have mixed with the Iberians to form groups called Celtiberians.

The Celtiberians are farmers and herders who also excel in metalworking crafts, which the Celts have brought from their Danubian homeland by way of Italy and southern France.

Celtic influence  dominates Celtiberian culture.

The Celtiberians appear to have had no social or political organization larger than their matriarchal, collective, and independent clans.

This apparent Celtic migration coincides with the widespread mass production of iron tools and weapons, a technological shift that spurs large-scale folk migrations across Asia and Europe.

Among the most prominent tribes in the Iberian Peninsula are the Lusitanians, Calaicians (Gallaeci), and Cynetes (Conii). Additionally, numerous smaller tribal groups contribute to the region’s ethnic and cultural diversity, including the Bracari, Celtici, Coelerni, Equaesi, Grovii, Interamici, Leuni, Luanqui, Limici, Narbasi, Nemetati, Paesuri, Quaquerni, Seurbi, Tamagani, Tapoli, Turduli, Turduli Veteres, Turdulorum Oppida, Turodi, and Zoelae.

These migrations and cultural interactions play a pivotal role in shaping the social, linguistic, and economic landscape of the region, influencing both indigenous Iberian societies and the emerging Celtic influence.

Greek pioneers from the island of Rhodes land in Spain in the eighth century BCE.

The Greek colony at Massilia (later Marseille) maintains commercial ties with the Celtiberians in what is now Catalonia (Spanish, Cataluna; Catalan, Catalunya).

In the sixth century BCE, Massilians found a polis at Ampurias, the first of several established on the Mediterranean coast of the peninsula.

Successive waves of Celtic peoples from Central Europe migrate into the western Iberian Peninsula, where the topography and climate are well suited to their herding-farming lifestyle.

Between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE, they settle in large numbers and gradually blend with the indigenous Iberos, giving rise to the Celtiberians—a new cultural and ethnic group.

Their settlements, known as castros, are hilltop forts, many of which still survive in northern Portugal, providing lasting evidence of their presence.

The Carthaginians replace the Phoenicians during the fifth century BCE and close the Straits of Gibraltar to the Greeks.

The Carthaginians undertake the conquest of the peninsula but are only able to permanently occupy the territory in the south originally controlled by their Phoenician and Greek predecessors.

The Carthaginian occupation will last until the defeat of Carthage by the Romans in the third century BCE.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (477–334 BCE): Deepening Celtic Integration and Growing Cultural Complexity

Between 477 and 334 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—encompassing northern and central Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and parts of northern Spain—underwent significant transformations marked by intensified Celtic cultural integration, expanded Mediterranean trade, and increasing societal complexity. This era witnessed growing interactions among the established Castro culture, emerging Lusitanian societies, resilient proto-Basque communities, and increasingly influential Celtic tribes, laying critical foundations for later Celtiberian and Iberian developments.

Political and Societal Developments

Expansion of Celtic Cultural Influence

• Celtic-speaking populations expanded their presence significantly, establishing permanent communities, especially in the interior and northern regions, introducing structured social hierarchies, warrior aristocracies, and new forms of political organization.

• Interactions between indigenous Lusitanian and Castro groups with incoming Celts resulted in hybrid cultural formations, characterized by shared political alliances, intermarriage, and blended cultural traditions.

Castro Culture Resilience and Regional Influence

• The Castro culture maintained its prominence, especially in Galicia and northern Portugal, where fortified settlements (castros) remained key economic, administrative, and defensive centers, now increasingly influenced by Celtic art, weaponry, and societal structures.

• Castro communities engaged actively in trade and diplomatic alliances with Celtic tribes, shaping regional dynamics.

Development of Lusitanian Society

• The Lusitanians strengthened their distinct cultural identity in central and western Iberia, continuing to develop fortified hilltop settlements, unique metallurgical practices, and warrior traditions, increasingly interacting culturally and economically with Celtic newcomers.

Proto-Basque Cultural Continuity

• Proto-Basque communities around the western Pyrenees and northern Iberian valleys maintained cultural resilience and territorial autonomy, largely resisting Celtic linguistic and social assimilation, preserving a distinct identity throughout this period.

Economic and Technological Advancements

Intensified Mediterranean Trade Networks

• Phoenician and Carthaginian trade networks expanded significantly, fostering economic prosperity and cultural exchanges. Coastal and inland tribes traded local commodities—metals, salt, wool, and agricultural products—for Mediterranean luxury goods, ceramics, iron weaponry, jewelry, and wine. Tribal economies increasingly relied upon slave labor, particularly among Lusitanian, Castro, and emerging Celtic communities, who captured slaves in warfare and engaged actively in slave trade exchanges with Mediterranean traders, acquiring luxury items and metal goods.

• Celtic tribes, Lusitanians, and Castro communities integrated into these trade networks, greatly benefiting economically and socially, reinforcing the power of tribal elites.

Advances in Ironworking and Metallurgical Expertise

• Ironworking techniques spread widely and improved significantly under Mediterranean and Celtic influence, revolutionizing agriculture, warfare, and daily life.

• High-quality iron weapons and agricultural implements became commonplace, complemented by continued advanced bronze-working in artistic, ceremonial, and decorative contexts.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Fusion of Celtic and Indigenous Traditions

• Celtic artistic motifs, pottery styles, and symbolic elements increasingly blended with indigenous Lusitanian and Castro traditions, creating richly hybridized cultures.

• Language exchange intensified, with many indigenous groups gradually adopting elements of Celtic languages, leading to the emergence of distinctive Celtiberian linguistic and cultural identities.

Evolving Ritual and Religious Practices

• Celtic religious influences—such as nature cults, sacred springs, druidic rituals, and warrior rites—were adopted and adapted alongside local ancestor veneration and communal practices.

• Sanctuaries, megalithic monuments, and ritual centers proliferated and diversified, reflecting increasingly complex religious beliefs and ceremonies.

Notable Settlements and Tribal Groups

• Castro Settlements: Prominent fortified settlements across Galicia and northern Portugal remained vibrant centers of commerce, metallurgy, and cultural exchange.

• Lusitanian Communities: Continued expanding fortified villages, further solidifying their cultural identity and economic strength.

• Established Celtic Tribes: Settled primarily in inland regions, influencing local societies culturally, economically, and politically, laying groundwork for future Celtiberian tribal entities.

• Proto-Basque Communities: Maintained distinct identity and autonomy in the western Pyrenees region, continuing a cultural tradition separate from widespread Celtic integration.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 477 and 334 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Experienced intensified Celtic integration, significantly reshaping regional cultural, social, and linguistic landscapes.

• Further consolidated trade and economic connections with Mediterranean civilizations, enhancing regional prosperity and societal complexity.

• Strengthened distinctive local cultural identities, particularly Lusitanian and Castro communities, while maintaining proto-Basque cultural autonomy, laying essential groundwork for the diverse Celtiberian cultures of subsequent centuries.

This transformative period positioned Atlantic Southwest Europe firmly within the broader European and Mediterranean historical narrative, significantly influencing the region’s future cultural, economic, and political trajectory.

Many Greek states suffer bloody class struggles over money and land in the fourth century BCE.

During this conflict, the kings of Persia contribute large amounts of money to whichever side will provide the best advantage to Persian interests.

Sparta's tenure as head of the empire is shortened by a combination of poor leadership, wars with Persia and with Sparta's former allies, and social weakness at home.

Sparta suffers a drastic shortage of manpower, and society nears revolution because of the huge amounts of wealth falling into the hands of a few.

In the Corinthian War (395-387), fought against Sparta by a coalition of Athens (with help from Persia), Boeotia, Corinth, and Argos, Sparta scores two land victories over Athenian allied states but suffers a severe naval defeat at Cnidus by a combined Athenian and Persian fleet.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (333–190 BCE): Celtic Consolidation, Lusitanian Expansion, and Emergence of Major Iberian Tribes

Between 333 and 190 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—covering northern and central Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and parts of northern Spain—experienced intensified Celtic integration, the flourishing of Lusitanian culture, and increased Mediterranean interactions. Significantly, this era witnessed the clear historical emergence of distinctive Iberian and Celtic tribal groups—including the Gallaeci, Astures, Cantabri, Autrigones, Caristii/Carietes, Vardulli, Berones, Turmodigi, 
Vaccaei, Vettones, Celtici, and Turduli Oppidani—each defining regional identities that would profoundly shape subsequent historical developments.

Political and Societal Developments

Consolidation of Major Tribal Groups

• Gallaeci tribes prominently occupied northwestern Iberia (modern Galicia and northern Portugal), closely associated with the Castro culture. They expanded fortified settlements and maintained substantial regional power through trade, agriculture, and metalworking.

• Astures and Cantabri emerged as dominant tribal confederations in northern Iberia (modern Asturias and Cantabria), known for fiercely defending their autonomy, developing extensive hillfort settlements, and distinctive warrior societies.

• Tribes such as the Autrigones, Caristii, Carietes, Vardulli, and Berones occupied territories across the northern Iberian plateau and eastern Cantabrian areas, establishing distinct cultural identities marked by fortified settlements, metallurgy, and agricultural practices.

• Inland Iberian tribal groups, notably the Turmodigi, Vaccaei, and Vettones, developed significant agricultural economies, sophisticated settlement structures, and trade networks across the Iberian interior, interacting intensively with Celtic, Lusitanian, and Mediterranean neighbors.

• The southern coastal and inland groups, particularly the Celtici and the Turduli Oppidani, established influential fortified towns (oppida), marking an early step toward proto-urban development and intensive Mediterranean engagement.

Lusitanian Expansion and Cultural Solidification

• The Lusitanians expanded significantly in central and western Iberia, further consolidating their distinct cultural identity, warrior traditions, and economic strength through fortified settlements, intricate metalwork, and strategic alliances with neighboring tribes.

Continued Stability of Proto-Basque Communities

• Proto-Basque groups maintained cultural and territorial resilience around the Pyrenees and northern valleys, resisting assimilation into neighboring Celtic-speaking communities, and continuing distinct linguistic and cultural practices.

Economic and Technological Developments

Intensified Mediterranean Economic Integration

• Robust trade networks connected Atlantic Southwest Europe with Mediterranean societies, particularly Carthaginian and emerging Roman trade routes. Iberian tribes exchanged metals (silver, copper, tin), salt, wool, timber, and agricultural products for Mediterranean luxury goods, ceramics, iron implements, wine, and olive oil. Slave labor became deeply embedded within regional economies, particularly in mining operations (silver, copper, tin), agricultural estates, and household service. Slaves, captured during tribal conflicts or raids, were regularly exchanged for Mediterranean imports, reinforcing economic hierarchies.

• Tribal elites among groups like the Gallaeci, Vettones, Celtici, and Lusitanians greatly benefited from these exchanges, consolidating their power and reinforcing social hierarchies.

Advancements in Iron Metallurgy

• Iron technology was firmly established throughout the region, widely adopted for agriculture, warfare, and artisanal production, greatly enhancing productivity and military effectiveness.

• Skilled artisans among the Gallaeci, Lusitanians, Celtici, and Vaccaei notably excelled in creating finely crafted iron and bronze weapons, tools, and decorative ornaments, blending indigenous and Mediterranean influences.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Hybridization of Cultural Traditions

• The increasing Celtic presence influenced local artistic and material cultures across tribes, visible through the spread of distinctive Celtic motifs in metalwork, pottery, and decorative arts, creating hybridized artistic styles.

• Tribal identities and linguistic patterns became increasingly complex, with clear Celtic linguistic influences emerging alongside indigenous Lusitanian and Iberian languages.

Complexity of Religious and Ritual Practices

• Ritual and religious traditions intensified, integrating Celtic and indigenous practices involving ancestor worship, warrior cults, nature reverence, and communal rites.

• Tribes maintained prominent sacred sites, hilltop sanctuaries, and ceremonial centers, reinforcing communal bonds, spiritual beliefs, and tribal identities.

Notable Settlements and Tribal Groups

• Gallaeci and Castro Settlements: Extensive hillfort settlements across Galicia and northern Portugal served as regional centers, economically and culturally influential.

• Astures and Cantabri: Numerous hillfort communities in Asturias and Cantabria, reflecting robust warrior traditions, territorial autonomy, and cultural distinctiveness.

• Vettones, Vaccaei, and Turmodigi: Flourishing fortified towns and agriculturally prosperous settlements in the Iberian interior, influential in regional trade.

• Celtici and Turduli Oppidani: Developed notable fortified towns along southern coastal and inland regions, becoming proto-urban trade hubs closely connected with Mediterranean commerce.

• Proto-Basque Communities: Maintained distinct settlements and cultural practices around the western Pyrenees, demonstrating consistent cultural resilience.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 333 and 190 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Witnessed the clear emergence and consolidation of major Iberian and Celtic tribal groups, significantly reshaping political landscapes, cultural identities, and economic interactions.

• Deepened integration into Mediterranean economic networks, setting the stage for subsequent Roman expansion and economic incorporation.

• Established foundational cultural diversity and complexity, influencing later historical trajectories and regional interactions with external powers.

This era decisively shaped the diverse cultural and political landscape of Atlantic Southwest Europe, paving the way for further interactions, particularly with Rome, and firmly embedding regional identities into the broader European historical narrative.

The region of Braga has been inhabited since prehistoric times. During the Iron Age, the Bracari, a Celtic people, settled in the area, constructing their characteristic fortified villages (castra).

Braga later became the capital of the Callaici Bracarii (Bracarenses), a tribe that occupied what is now Galicia and northern Portugal.

It has long been established that they spoke a Celtic language, as evidenced by inscriptions such as the dedication to the goddess Nabia at Braga’s Fonte do Ídolo ("Fountain of the Idol"), and the name of their town, Tongobriga (modern Marco de Canaveses).

Salamanca was founded by the Vacceos, a Celtic tribe, as one of two fortresses built to defend their territory near the Duero River. The settlement is located on the Tormes River in west-central Spain, approximately 110 miles (170 kilometers) northwest of present-day Madrid.

In 222 BCE, Hasdrubal the Fair leads Carthaginian forces in capturing Salamanca, as Carthage seeks to restore its pre-war prosperity by expanding its control over Hispania and securing valuable resources.