East Asia (2637 – 910 BCE): Rivers, Metals, and the Rise of States

Regional Overview

During the Bronze and Early Iron Ages, East Asia emerged as one of the world’s great civilizational heartlands.
From the Yellow and Yangtze valleys of China to the Korean Peninsula, Japan, Taiwan, and the highlands and steppe corridors of western China and Mongolia, societies transformed irrigation, metallurgy, and writing into the instruments of state power.
This was an age of hydraulic empires, bronze workshops, and expanding frontiers, when settled farmers, mobile herders, and maritime voyagers together forged the cultural matrix that would define East Asia’s classical eras.

Geography and Environment

East Asia’s vast domain encompassed temperate plains, subtropical coasts, and alpine plateaus.
The Yellow River carved loess terraces ideal for millet and wheat, while the Yangtze Delta offered lush paddies for rice.
To the north and west lay the steppe and desert margins—Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Gansu—where grasslands merged into arid basins and mountain ranges.
Along the Pacific rim, the Korean and Japanese archipelagos formed the maritime frontier, linked to the mainland by currents and trade.
These diverse settings sustained a continuum from intensive wet-rice agriculture to high-pasture nomadism.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

Holocene stability continued, though alternating floods, droughts, and cool spells along the Yellow River spurred engineering and migration.
Monsoon rains sustained southern rice fields, while drier cycles reshaped steppe pastures.
Environmental mastery—levees, canals, and paddy works—became the defining measure of political capacity.

Societies and Political Developments

By the mid-third millennium BCE, the Longshan culture of northern China had introduced walled towns and social hierarchy, evolving into the Erlitou state (often equated with the semi-legendary Xia).
The Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) institutionalized bronze ritual, written records, and urban administration; its successor, the early Zhou, extended feudal rule across the plains.
In the south, Liangzhu and its heirs built water-managed jade-working centers.
Across the steppe rim, pastoral chiefdoms traded horses and metalwork with the settled zones, while in Korea, the Mumun culture advanced agriculture and monumental dolmen building.
The Jōmon peoples of Japan refined a maritime-forest economy, their cord-marked ceramics among the world’s oldest continuous traditions.

Economy and Technology

Agriculture anchored all development: millet and wheat in the north, rice in the south, supplemented by legumes, fruit trees, and silk production.
Bronze metallurgy reached unprecedented artistry under the Shang, producing ornate vessels, chariot fittings, and weapons.
Iron smelting appeared toward the close of this era, transforming farming and warfare.
Riverine and coastal transport expanded trade in jade, salt, ceramics, and textiles; the Yangtze Delta became a maritime hub connecting inland producers with Korea, Japan, and Taiwan.
In the west, the Hexi Corridor and Tarim oases formed early nodes of the Silk Road, moving jade eastward and horses west.

Belief, Writing, and Art

Shang oracle-bone inscriptions inaugurated Chinese writing, binding religion and administration.
Bronze vessels embodied a theology of ancestor worship and royal mediation between Heaven and Earth.
In the south, jade rituals expressed a cosmology of water and fertility; in the steppe, stone stelae and kurgan rings honored sky gods and heroic ancestors.
Across Korea and Japan, dolmens, shell mounds, and figurines encoded lineage and territorial identity.
Art and ritual thus formed a shared grammar of power from the Pacific to the Altai.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

East Asia’s civilizations grew through constant motion.
Caravan and river routes carried goods from the Tarim Basin to the Yellow Plain; maritime passages through the Bohai, East China, and Japan Seas linked coastal polities and disseminated crops, metals, and ideas.
These overlapping land and sea networks prefigured the trans-Eurasian and trans-Pacific exchange systems of later antiquity.

Environmental Adaptation and Resilience

Flood-control levees, paddy irrigation, and terrace farming stabilized yields in volatile climates.
Nomadic mobility balanced the steppe’s shifting pastures, while coastal fishers diversified protein sources and trade goods.
In every zone, societies developed adaptive mosaics of agriculture, herding, and craft that cushioned environmental stress and underpinned political endurance.

Regional Synthesis and Long-Term Significance

By 910 BCE, East Asia was a continent of interconnected yet distinctive worlds:

• In China, bronze states and written administration redefined governance.

• In Korea and Japan, agrarian and megalithic cultures matured along maritime arteries.

• In the western highlands and steppe, mobile herders linked China to Central Asia’s metallurgical frontier.

Together these traditions laid the foundations of the classical Chinese, Korean, and Japanese civilizations, and established East Asia’s lasting role as a pivot between the land empires of Eurasia and the oceanic cultures of the Pacific.

Maritime East Asia (2637 – 910 BCE): River Valleys, Coastal Plains, and Early States

Geographic and Environmental Context

Martitime East Asia—including eastern China, Taiwan, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan—was anchored by fertile river basins such as the Yellow River and Yangtze River, alongside extensive coastal plains and sheltered inland seas. The Bohai Gulf, East China Sea, and Sea of Japan created maritime corridors, while inland mountain ranges like the Qinling and Taebaek defined cultural and ecological boundaries. The climate ranged from temperate in the north to subtropical in the south, fostering diverse agricultural systems.

Agriculture and Early Civilizations

By the mid–third millennium BCE, the north’s Yellow River basin supported millet and wheat farming, while the Yangtze basin cultivated rice in sophisticated paddy systems. These agricultural foundations sustained some of East Asia’s earliest complex societies.

• In the Yellow River region, the late Longshan culture (c. 3000–1900 BCE) developed rammed-earth walled towns, elaborate pottery, and social stratification, laying the groundwork for the emergence of the Erlitou cultur e(c. 1900–1500 BCE), often identified with the semi-legendary Xia dynasty.

• The Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) established one of the first fully documented states in East Asia, with urban centers, palatial compounds, and control over large territories through networks of allied and subordinate polities.

• In the Yangtze basin, complex cultures such as Liangzhu (before c. 2300 BCE) and its successors specialized in jade production, hydrological engineering, and ceremonial centers.

Technological and Cultural Developments

Bronze metallurgy flourished under the Shang, producing ritual vessels, weapons, and chariot fittings of extraordinary skill. Oracle bone script emerged as the earliest known form of Chinese writing, used for divination and state record-keeping. Jade carving traditions—especially in Liangzhu-descended communities—produced bi disks and cong tubes, objects central to ritual and elite identity.
In Korea, the Mumun period (c. 1500–300 BCE) introduced intensive agriculture, large-scale dolmens, and bronze weaponry. In Japan, the Jōmon culture maintained a hunter-fisher-gatherer economy with some plant cultivation, producing highly distinctive cord-marked pottery and shell middens that attest to rich coastal subsistence.

Maritime Networks and Exchange

Coastal and riverine transport tied together communities across Lower East Asia. The Yangtze Deltaacted as a hub for trade in jade, ceramics, and textiles, while the Shandong Peninsula facilitated contact between northern China and the Korean Peninsula. Early seafaring along the East China Sea connected mainland cultures with Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands, moving nephrite jade, shell ornaments, and possibly agricultural crops.

Cultural and Symbolic Expressions

In the north, Shang ritual life centered on ancestor worship, with elaborate bronze vessels used in feasts and sacrifices. In the south, water-focused cosmologies and earth–sky symbolism infused jade artistry and ceremonial landscapes. Across Korea and Japan, monumental burial sites—dolmens in Korea, shell mounds in Japan—served as both funerary monuments and markers of social memory.

Environmental Adaptation and Resilience

Communities engineered river levees, paddy fields, and irrigation channels to manage seasonal flooding and droughts. Coastal fishing villages diversified diets with shellfish, seaweed, and marine fish, buffering agricultural shortfalls. In Korea and Japan, seasonal resource scheduling allowed balanced exploitation of marine and terrestrial environments.

Transition to the Early First Millennium BCE

By 910 BCE, Martitime East Asia was a region of dynamic cultural interaction and technological sophistication. In China, the Shang state’s political, economic, and ritual systems set precedents for later dynasties, while in Korea and Japan, evolving agricultural and maritime traditions created the foundations for complex societies that would integrate more fully into continental networks in the centuries ahead.

Maritime East Asia (2637 – 910 BCE): River Valleys, Coastal Plains, and Early States

Geographic and Environmental Context

Martitime East Asia—including eastern China, Taiwan, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan—was anchored by fertile river basins such as the Yellow River and Yangtze River, alongside extensive coastal plains and sheltered inland seas. The Bohai Gulf, East China Sea, and Sea of Japan created maritime corridors, while inland mountain ranges like the Qinling and Taebaek defined cultural and ecological boundaries. The climate ranged from temperate in the north to subtropical in the south, fostering diverse agricultural systems.

Agriculture and Early Civilizations

By the mid–third millennium BCE, the north’s Yellow River basin supported millet and wheat farming, while the Yangtze basin cultivated rice in sophisticated paddy systems. These agricultural foundations sustained some of East Asia’s earliest complex societies.

• In the Yellow River region, the late Longshan culture (c. 3000–1900 BCE) developed rammed-earth walled towns, elaborate pottery, and social stratification, laying the groundwork for the emergence of the Erlitou cultur e(c. 1900–1500 BCE), often identified with the semi-legendary Xia dynasty.

• The Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) established one of the first fully documented states in East Asia, with urban centers, palatial compounds, and control over large territories through networks of allied and subordinate polities.

• In the Yangtze basin, complex cultures such as Liangzhu (before c. 2300 BCE) and its successors specialized in jade production, hydrological engineering, and ceremonial centers.

Technological and Cultural Developments

Bronze metallurgy flourished under the Shang, producing ritual vessels, weapons, and chariot fittings of extraordinary skill. Oracle bone script emerged as the earliest known form of Chinese writing, used for divination and state record-keeping. Jade carving traditions—especially in Liangzhu-descended communities—produced bi disks and cong tubes, objects central to ritual and elite identity.
In Korea, the Mumun period (c. 1500–300 BCE) introduced intensive agriculture, large-scale dolmens, and bronze weaponry. In Japan, the Jōmon culture maintained a hunter-fisher-gatherer economy with some plant cultivation, producing highly distinctive cord-marked pottery and shell middens that attest to rich coastal subsistence.

Maritime Networks and Exchange

Coastal and riverine transport tied together communities across Lower East Asia. The Yangtze Deltaacted as a hub for trade in jade, ceramics, and textiles, while the Shandong Peninsula facilitated contact between northern China and the Korean Peninsula. Early seafaring along the East China Sea connected mainland cultures with Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands, moving nephrite jade, shell ornaments, and possibly agricultural crops.

Cultural and Symbolic Expressions

In the north, Shang ritual life centered on ancestor worship, with elaborate bronze vessels used in feasts and sacrifices. In the south, water-focused cosmologies and earth–sky symbolism infused jade artistry and ceremonial landscapes. Across Korea and Japan, monumental burial sites—dolmens in Korea, shell mounds in Japan—served as both funerary monuments and markers of social memory.

Environmental Adaptation and Resilience

Communities engineered river levees, paddy fields, and irrigation channels to manage seasonal flooding and droughts. Coastal fishing villages diversified diets with shellfish, seaweed, and marine fish, buffering agricultural shortfalls. In Korea and Japan, seasonal resource scheduling allowed balanced exploitation of marine and terrestrial environments.

Transition to the Early First Millennium BCE

By 910 BCE, Martitime East Asia was a region of dynamic cultural interaction and technological sophistication. In China, the Shang state’s political, economic, and ritual systems set precedents for later dynasties, while in Korea and Japan, evolving agricultural and maritime traditions created the foundations for complex societies that would integrate more fully into continental networks in the centuries ahead.

Wheat appears in China by around 2000 BCE.

China’s village agricultural units cooperate in valley defense against perennial intrusions of mounted nomad bowmen from Mongolia and Manchuria to the north (the legendary Xia dynasty, according to Chinese literary sources, derives from a leading member of one such unit).

The development of Chinese culture in the loess lands of China's middle Huang He valley serves (with Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley) as the third of Asia’s “culture hearths.”

The development of Chinese culture in the loess lands of China's middle Huang He valley serves (with Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley) as the third of Asia’s “culture hearths.”

Maritime East Asia (1917–1774 BCE): The Erlitou Culture and Early Bronze Age Developments

Between 1917 BCE and 1774 BCE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—sees significant cultural and technological developments marked prominently by the rise and spread of the influential Erlitou culture. This early Bronze Age society, named after its principal archaeological site at Erlitou in Yanshi, Henan Province, represents a crucial stage in the evolution of complex urban societies and metallurgy in ancient China.

Rise and Spread of the Erlitou Culture

The Erlitou culture flourishes roughly between 2000 BCE and 1500 BCE, with its largest and most influential site located at Erlitou itself, spanning approximately three kilometers in diameter. This prominent settlement likely serves as a central hub for ritual, political, and economic activity, notably monopolizing the sophisticated production of ritual bronze vessels. These vessels become distinctive markers of Erlitou craftsmanship, signaling the emergence of specialized metallurgy and advanced artisan traditions during China’s early Bronze Age.

Geographic Expansion and Regional Influence

Originating from antecedent late-Neolithic Longshan cultural traditions, Erlitou rapidly expands its cultural influence beyond Henan Province, spreading significantly throughout neighboring regions including Shanxi, and subsequently influencing areas of Shaanxi and Hubei provinces. The widespread geographic distribution of Erlitou cultural artifacts—particularly ritual bronzes—suggests extensive regional networks of trade, cultural exchange, and possibly political alliances or control extending throughout central and northeastern China.

The Erlitou Culture and the Xia Dynasty Debate

A significant scholarly debate centers on Erlitou’s potential association with the legendary Chinese Xia Dynasty, traditionally described in historical texts but not conclusively linked to archaeological sites. Most Chinese archaeologists consider Erlitou the physical manifestation of the Xia Dynasty, citing chronological alignment and geographic coherence with textual descriptions. In contrast, many Western archaeologists remain cautious, emphasizing the absence of written records directly linking the Erlitou archaeological findings with the historical narrative of the Xia Dynasty.

This debate underscores the importance of Erlitou as a key archaeological culture bridging prehistoric traditions and historical accounts, regardless of its direct dynastic connections.

Legacy of the Era: Foundations of Urbanization and Bronze Technology

Thus, the period from 1917 BCE to 1774 BCE marks a pivotal chapter in the historical trajectory of Maritime East Asia, particularly within China’s central and northeastern regions. The emergence and regional expansion of the Erlitou culture signify critical transitions toward urban complexity, sophisticated metallurgical practices, and increased social stratification. These innovations lay lasting foundations for subsequent cultural and historical developments across Lower East Asia.

The Erlitou culture, a name given by archaeologists to an Early Bronze Age society that exists in China from 2000 BCE to 1500 BCE, is named after the site discovered at Erlitou in Yanshi, Henan Province.

Erlitou, at three kilometers in diameter the largest site associated with the culture, apparently monopolizes the production of ritual bronze vessels.

The Erlitou culture, which may have evolved from the Longshan culture, is widely spread throughout Henan and Shanxi Province, and will later appear in Shaanxi and Hubei Province.

Most Chinese archaeologists identify the Erlitou culture as the site of the Xia Dynasty, while most Western archaeologists remain unconvinced of the connection between the Erlitou culture and the Xia Dynasty since there are no extant written records linking Erlitou with the official history.

Maritime East Asia (1773–1630 BCE): Decline of the Xia Dynasty and Early Innovations

Between 1773 BCE and 1630 BCE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—undergoes significant transitions, particularly in ancient China, as the legendary Xia Dynasty faces internal decline, setting the stage for dynastic transformation. Concurrently, early cultural innovations, notably the development of traditional Chinese ink, contribute to regional cultural sophistication.

Kong Jia and the Decline of the Xia Dynasty

According to ancient textual sources such as the Bamboo Annals, the Xia Dynasty—traditionally considered China’s earliest hereditary dynasty—experiences substantial internal decline under its fourteenth ruler, Kong Jia, who reigns approximately from 1789 BCE to 1758 BCE. Governing from the Xia capital located at West River, Kong Jia is remembered unfavorably as a ruler excessively preoccupied with superstition, indulgence in alcohol, and pursuits of pleasure.

His ineffective governance and neglect of administrative responsibilities lead to a gradual weakening of centralized royal authority. During and after Kong Jia’s rule, regional vassal kings gain increasing autonomy and power, undermining Xia dominance. This progressive decentralization of authority continues throughout subsequent generations, ultimately leading to the dynasty’s downfall when the powerful vassal king, Tang of Shang, overthrows the last Xia ruler, Jie, establishing the Shang Dynasty in approximately 1618 BCE.

Early Chinese Ink Traditions

Around the same era, notable cultural advancements occur within Lower East Asia, specifically in the early development of Chinese ink. Historical evidence traces ink-making traditions back to approximately the 18th century BCE, featuring the use of naturally derived inks made from plants (plant dyes), animals, and mineral sources such as graphite. These materials are ground with water to produce inks applied using specially crafted brushes, laying critical foundations for future literary, artistic, and cultural expression throughout China and, eventually, broader East Asia.

The emergence of these early inks underscores the increasing sophistication of cultural practices within the region, marking significant steps toward later artistic and literary traditions.

Legacy of the Era: Dynastic Transition and Cultural Innovation

Thus, the period 1773–1630 BCE marks a critical era in Maritime East Asia’s early historical trajectory. The gradual collapse of the Xia Dynasty—symbolized by Kong Jia’s ineffective reign—paves the way for major political transformations, while concurrent innovations such as early ink-making practices highlight the region’s advancing cultural complexity. These developments significantly shape the historical and cultural evolution of Lower East Asia in subsequent periods.

Maritime East Asia (1629–1486 BCE): Rise and Consolidation of the Shang Dynasty

Between 1629 BCE and 1486 BCE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—experiences a pivotal transition with the fall of the quasi-legendary Xia Dynasty and the rise of the historically attested Shang Dynasty. This era is marked by significant cultural advancements, including the introduction of sophisticated bronze metallurgy, the establishment of Chinese writing, and the formation of distinct social hierarchies, laying lasting foundations for Chinese civilization.

Fall of the Xia Dynasty

According to traditional Chinese historical accounts—including the Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project—the Xia Dynasty’s last ruler, Jie, reigns for fifty-two years until approximately 1618 BCE. Jie’s oppressive and corrupt rule, characterized by tyranny and cruelty, precipitates the dynasty’s downfall. Later historical records, particularly the Bamboo Annals, describe catastrophic natural phenomena during Jie's final years, including unusual climatic events such as frost in July, heavy rains, crop failures, and an anomalous "yellow fog" accompanied by dim sunlight and multiple suns appearing simultaneously. Modern scientists speculate that these phenomena could have been related to volcanic events, notably the Thera eruption, linking environmental disturbances to historical upheaval.

Ultimately, Jie is overthrown by Tang of Shang at the pivotal Battle of Mingtiao, marking the end of Xia dominance and the beginning of a new era under the Shang Dynasty.

Rise and Expansion of the Shang Dynasty

Emerging prominently around 1600 BCE, the Shang Dynasty establishes dominance in North China’s Henan region, absorbing smaller kingdoms including the remnants of the Xia state. Archaeological evidence and historical texts—particularly Sima Qian’s Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) and later Zhou Dynasty documents—indicate the Shang people share an ethnic affinity with the Huaxia peoples of the Yellow River basin.

The Shang society is fundamentally agrarian, supplemented by hunting and animal husbandry, and characterized by advanced urban centers supporting complex social stratification. Notably, the Shang Dynasty represents an early Chinese "slave society," structured hierarchically from the king and ruling elite—including royal family members, nobility, priesthood, and specialized artisans—down to the urban craftspeople, village agriculturists, and, at the bottom, enslaved populations.

Bronze Metallurgy and Cultural Achievements

During this period, sophisticated bronze metallurgy rapidly develops, transforming Shang society. Bronze-casting technology, previously undocumented at this level of sophistication in China, emerges fully formed, enabling the production of intricate ritual vessels, ceremonial weapons, and artistic objects. Shang bronze-working also enhances the crafting of jade artifacts, integrating multiple advanced artistic practices.

Development of Early Chinese Writing

The Shang Dynasty is critically significant for developing an early and fully operational system of Chinese writing. This script, evident in surviving inscriptions on bronze artifacts, oracle bones (turtle shells, cattle scapulae, and other bones), pottery, jade, and other media, indicates a complex writing system already mature by this period. Although the direct antecedents of Shang script remain obscure, it is widely assumed to have evolved from earlier hieroglyphic forms, attesting to a long period of development.

These oracle bone inscriptions represent China's earliest substantial corpus of recorded written characters, providing invaluable insights into Shang society, religion, governance, and daily life.

Religious Practices and Social Organization

Shang religion prominently features worship of the supreme deity Shangdi (Shang-ti), alongside rituals and prayers directed toward ancestral spirits. Ritual practice includes human sacrifice, reflecting beliefs about the afterlife, divine favor, and dynastic legitimacy. The Shang’s distinct religious and social systems solidify political cohesion, enforce hierarchical relationships, and reinforce the centralized authority of the king.

Legacy of the Era: Foundations of Historic Chinese Civilization

Thus, between 1629 and 1486 BCE, Maritime East Asia witnesses profound historical transformation as the Shang Dynasty supplants Xia, bringing advances in bronze metallurgy, sophisticated writing systems, hierarchical social structures, and centralized governance. These developments shape the essential foundations of historic Chinese civilization, significantly influencing subsequent cultural and political evolution in the region.