South Asia (909 BCE – 819 CE): Iron Kingdoms, Oceanic Routes, and the Weave of Faiths

Regional Overview

Between the Hindu Kush and the southern capes of India stretched one of humanity’s most intricate civilizational tapestries.
From the Iron Age kingdoms of the Ganges plain to the maritime entrepôts of the Deccan and Sri Lanka, South Asia in the first millennium BCE – early CE was a world of transformation:
villages became towns, tribes became kingdoms, and merchants and monks carried ideas and goods from the Mediterranean to the South China Sea.
Two spheres balanced each other — the Upper South Asian interior, rooted in riverine agriculture and imperial administration, and the Maritime South Asian littoral, animated by monsoon commerce and cosmopolitan exchange.
Together they created a continental-oceanic civilization that fused agrarian power with maritime reach.

Geography and Environment

The northern heartland spanned the Indus–Ganga–Brahmaputra basins, shielded by the Himalayas and drained by some of the most fertile alluvium on Earth.
To the south rose the Deccan plateau and the coastal plains of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Andhra, encircled by the Indian Ocean and threaded with river deltas.
Across the seas lay Sri Lanka, Lakshadweep, and the Maldives, forming stepping-stones toward Arabia and Southeast Asia.

Monsoon regimes shaped every aspect of life:
the southwest rains (June–September) watered rice fields and replenished tanks, while the retreating monsoon powered voyages west and east.
Periods of drought were met with irrigation ingenuity — canals, tanks, and stepwells that transformed the landscape into a man-made hydrology.

Societies and Political Developments

Upper South Asia: From Mahajanapadas to Empires

By the mid-first millennium BCE, iron plows and surplus agriculture supported the Mahajanapadas, the “Great States” of northern India — Magadha, Kosala, Kuru-Panchala, and others.
Out of this matrix emerged the Mauryan Empire (4th–3rd c. BCE), the subcontinent’s first large-scale polity, uniting much of India and Afghanistan under Chandragupta Maurya and later Aśoka.
Aśoka’s edicts, carved in stone across the empire, broadcast moral and administrative order and announced Buddhism as an imperial ethos.

After the Mauryas, regional powers filled the landscape: Indo-Greek and Śaka (Scythian) dynasts in the northwest; Kushan rulers linking Gandhara to Central Asia; and the Gupta Empire (4th–6th c. CE) in the Ganga heartland, whose classical Sanskrit culture defined art, science, and kingship for centuries.
The Hūṇas shattered Gupta unity, but the Pāla dynasty (8th–9th c.) revived Buddhist scholarship in Bengal and Bihar, sustaining the great universities of Nālandā and Vikramaśīla.
In the Himalayas, Licchavi Nepal and early Bhutanese polities bridged India and Tibet, while northern Arakan (Myanmar) connected the Ganga world to Southeast Asia.

Maritime South Asia: Deccan and Peninsular Polities

South of the Vindhyas, the Satavahanas (2nd c. BCE – 3rd c. CE) controlled the Deccan’s trade arteries, issuing coins in Prakrit and sponsoring Buddhist stupas along caravan routes.
Their successors — Ikshvakus, Vakatakas, Kadambas, Pallavas, Chalukyas, and the enduring Chera–Chola–Pandya triad of Tamilakam — built a patchwork of kingdoms linked by commerce and culture.
On the island of Sri Lanka, the Anurādhapura monarchy (from the 4th c. BCE onward) expanded vast irrigation tanks and monasteries, anchoring the Theravāda Buddhist tradition.

By the early centuries CE, these southern polities were exporting pepper, pearls, gems, and fine textiles through ports like Muziris, Arikamedu, and Kaveripattinam.
Greek, Roman, and later Chinese merchants arrived with coins and amphorae, while Indian sailors mastered the seasonal monsoon routes to the Red Sea and the Straits of Malacca.

Economy and Exchange

Agriculture formed the continental core — rice in the east, wheat and barley in the northwest, millet and pulses in the Deccan — sustained by iron tools and canal irrigation.
Trade networks extended in every direction:

• Overland, through the Hindu Kush passes toward Persia and Central Asia;

• Seaward, through the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal to Africa, Arabia, and Southeast Asia.

Guilds (śreṇis) organized artisans and merchants; coins of silver, copper, and gold testified to a monetized economy.
Ports and caravanserais mirrored one another: harbors supplied pepper and pearls, while upland markets provided cotton and metals.
By integrating inland agrarian surplus with oceanic distribution, South Asia became the keystone between the Mediterranean and East Asia.

Technology and Material Culture

Advances in iron smelting, textile weaving, and architecture marked the age.
Stone and brick temples evolved from wooden prototypes; cave sanctuaries (Ajanta, Ellora) married engineering to faith.
In Sri Lanka, the hydraulic engineering of reservoirs and canals was among the most sophisticated in the ancient world.
Shipbuilding along both coasts produced plank-built vessels capable of open-ocean navigation, while astronomical knowledge guided monsoon sailing.

Art and literature flourished: Sanskrit epics and dramas, Prakrit poetry, Tamil Sangam anthologies, and Buddhist art from Gandhara to Amaravati conveyed a shared aesthetic of order and devotion.

Belief and Symbolism

Religious and philosophical plurality defined the region.
Vedic ritual evolved into Hindu devotional (bhakti) movements; Buddhism spread from the Ganga valley to Central Asia and Sri Lanka; Jainism flourished in western India.
Royal patronage crossed boundaries — Buddhist kings built Hindu shrines, Hindu dynasts endowed monasteries — reflecting a civilizational ethos of inclusivity and dialogue.
Symbolic architecture expressed cosmic geometry: the stupa as world-mountain, the temple as microcosm of the universe.

Adaptation and Resilience

Monsoon dependence fostered ingenuity: reservoirs, tanks, and flood-embankments turned uncertainty into reliability.
Polities survived invasion and drought by devolving power to local guilds and temples, creating layered sovereignty that could bend without breaking.
Maritime redundancy — alternate ports, seasonal scheduling — kept trade alive despite war or storm.
Cultural resilience came through translation and synthesis: foreign influences were absorbed, not imposed.

Regional Synthesis and Long-Term Significance

By 819 CE, South Asia had achieved an enduring civilizational equilibrium.
Its Upper sphere—from Gandhara and the Ganga to Bengal—embodied imperial administration, monastic learning, and continental coherence.
Its Maritime sphere—from the Deccan to Tamilakam and Anurādhapura—commanded the sea lanes, transmitting ideas and goods between worlds.
Each depended on the other: river basins fed the ports, and ocean trade enriched the plains.

This duality—continental and maritime—remains the natural division of South Asia, as visible in its geography as in its history.
Together they sustained a unified yet plural world, where faith, art, and commerce moved with the monsoon and where the ideals of Dharma, compassion, and cosmic order became the shared grammar of an entire region.

Upper South Asia (909 BCE – 819 CE): Early Iron and Antiquity — Mahājanapadas to Guptas, Kushans & Pālas, Himalayan Polities

Geographic & Environmental Context

Upper South Asia includes Afghanistan, Pakistan, North India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and north-western Myanmar (northern Arakan/Rakhine and the Chindwin valley).
Anchors: the Hindu Kush–Kabul–Gandhāra gateways (Kabul, Swat, Peshawar); the Indus–Punjab rivers (Ravi, Beas, Chenab, Jhelum, Sutlej); the Thar–Ghaggar margins; the Ganga–Yamuna Doab and Middle Ganga plain; Kashmir, the Siwalik/Terai belts, the Brahmaputra–Meghna delta (Sundarbans) and Chittagong Hills, plus the Chindwin–northern Arakan corridor.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

• First-millennium oscillations: alternating dry spells in the northwest and humid stability in the east.

• Rice agriculture anchored the Ganga–Brahmaputra lowlands; wheat, barley, and pulses shaped the Punjab.

• Steppe aridity cycles across Afghanistan and Central Asia influenced migration and trade along the Khyber–Bolan passes.

Societies & Political Developments

• Mahājanapada Age (~600–300 BCE): Sixteen city-states and republics competed until the Mauryan Empire(4th–3rd c. BCE) unified the Doab under Chandragupta Maurya; Aśoka’s inscriptions spread dhamma ideals from Gandhāra to Orissa.

• Indo-Greek, Śaka, and Kushan Kingdoms (1st–3rd c. CE): controlled Gandhāra–Punjab trade; Gandhāran Buddhist art fused Hellenistic and Indian forms.

• Gupta Empire (4th–6th c. CE): a classical florescence—Sanskrit literature, stone temple architecture, and iron-plough agronomy flourished.

• Hūṇa Invasions (5th–6th c.) fractured Gupta unity; regional dynasties (Aulikara, Maitraka, Vākāṭaka) rose.

• Pāla Dynasty (8th–9th c.) in Bengal–Bihar revived imperial reach under Dharmapāla; Buddhist universities at Nālandā and Vikramaśīla drew scholars from across Asia.

• Kathmandu Valley (Licchavi rule, c. 4th–8th c.) urbanized Himalayan trade; Bhutan remained a constellation of monastic–clan polities.

• Northwestern Myanmar (Arakan & Chindwin): small Buddhist chiefdoms linked Bengal and Upper Myanmar through river exchange.

Economy & Trade

• Agrarian base: iron ploughs and irrigation expanded rice cultivation; sugar pressing, textile weaving, and metalcrafts diversified surplus.

• Trade corridors: the Khyber–Bolan gateways, Ganga riverine traffic, and Bengal delta ports connected the subcontinent to Iran, Arabia, and Southeast Asia.

• Exports: cotton cloth, pepper, ivory, and beads; Imports: horses, gold, and silver.

• Monastic and temple pilgrimages stimulated internal commerce and urban growth.

Technology & Material Culture

• Iron metallurgy and advanced smithing; water-management works in the eastern plains.

• Temple and stūpa architecture in stone and brick; Gandhāran stucco and sculpture blending Indian and Mediterranean motifs.

• Coinages from punch-marked silver to Kushan copper-gold and Gupta gold dinars signaled monetized exchange.

Belief & Symbolism

• Buddhism, Jainism, and Hindu traditions coexisted; Aśokan pillars and Gupta temples embodied ethical and cosmic order.

• Pāla patrons sponsored the great mahāvihāras; the bhakti current stirred popular devotion.

• Ritual landscapes—from the Ganga ghats to Himalayan caves—encoded pilgrimage and power.

Adaptation & Resilience

• Eastern rice surpluses offset western drought losses.

• Multiple trade routes and caravan–river redundancy ensured recovery after wars.

• Himalayan buffer states mediated trans-range exchange and provided refuge for monks and merchants.

• Caste, guild, and monastic institutions stabilized production and learning through political flux.

Transition

By 819 CE, Upper South Asia stood as a multi-core civilization:

• the Pālas governing the east,

• post-Gupta successor states in the north,

• Kushan legacies in the northwest,

• and Licchavi Kathmandu anchoring the Himalayan hinge.
  Its synthesis of agrarian expansion, intellectual vitality, and trans-Asian connectivity laid the foundations for the medieval resurgence of pilgrimage kingdoms and temple economies that would follow.

Upper South Asia (765–622 BCE): Regional Dynamics and Cultural Flourishing

Political Consolidation and Rivalries

Between 765 and 622 BCE, Upper South Asia witnessed further political consolidation and intense regional rivalries. Kingdoms such as the Kuru and Panchala in Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh experienced heightened competition and territorial disputes. Simultaneously, the Magadha kingdom in modern-day Bihar continued its steady rise, gradually becoming a formidable political force.

Socio-Religious Evolution

This age saw the further refinement of the caste system and the deepening complexity of Vedic rituals. Societal norms solidified around the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, clearly defined within Vedic texts. Ritual sacrifices and ceremonies became increasingly elaborate, emphasizing the role of the priestly class.

Archaeological and Cultural Expressions

The Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture remained prominent, its settlements and artifacts closely aligned with the historical accounts of the period. Additionally, the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) began to appear, marking technological advancement and indicating evolving trade practices and urban sophistication in regions like Punjab, Haryana, and the central Gangetic plains.

Economic Integration and Expansion

Regional economies thrived, underpinned by advanced agricultural practices, extensive trade routes, and artisanal specialization. Key urban centers such as Taxila, now in Punjab, Pakistan, expanded significantly, facilitating extensive regional and interregional trade. Networks reaching Central and West Asia continued to foster economic prosperity and cultural exchanges.

Himalayan Regions and Interactions

The Himalayan territories, encompassing modern-day Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, and the region of present-day Sikkim, experienced increased interactions with the lowland kingdoms. While some peripheral areas of present-day Tibet had cultural exchanges with these Himalayan regions, the Tibetan plateau itself is part of the Upper East Asia subregion. Himalayan passes served as crucial conduits for trade, cultural exchanges, and the dissemination of religious beliefs.

Eastern and Northeastern Cultural Identities

In the northeastern territories, comprising present-day Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram, and adjacent parts of Bangladesh and northwestern Myanmar, regional cultures flourished. These societies maintained distinct pottery traditions, ritual practices, and economic connections with the wider Gangetic plains.

Religious and Artistic Maturation

Religious thought continued to evolve during this period, laying the foundations for future Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Artistic representations became increasingly sophisticated, reflecting religious iconography and elaborate rituals integral to the evolving spiritual landscape.

Legacy of the Age

The period between 765 and 622 BCE significantly shaped Upper South Asia's historical trajectory, strengthening regional kingdoms, enriching socio-religious practices, and enhancing economic prosperity. The cultural, religious, and political dynamics established during this time continued to resonate profoundly, influencing subsequent historical developments across the subcontinent.

Upper South Asia (621–478 BCE): Empires, Faiths, and Cultural Transformations

Rise of the Magadhan Empire

From 621 to 478 BCE, the region of Upper South Asia witnessed the rise of the powerful Magadhan Empire in the Gangetic plain, particularly in present-day Bihar. The Magadhan state, with its capitals initially at Rajgir and later at Pataliputra (modern-day Patna), gradually dominated surrounding territories through both diplomacy and military conquest. It eventually outpaced its neighbors, including the older kingdoms of Kuru and Panchala in Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.

Emergence of Influential States

Concurrently, the age saw the prominence of influential states such as Avanti in western Madhya Pradesh, Kosala in eastern Uttar Pradesh, and Gandhara in the region corresponding to modern-day northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. These states engaged in frequent conflicts and shifting alliances, shaping the region’s geopolitical landscape.

Persian Influence and the Achaemenid Empire

In this period, territories such as Gandhara, Balochistan, and significant parts of present-day Afghanistan were incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian Empire under rulers such as Cyrus the Great and Darius I. Persian rule brought significant administrative reforms, improved trade networks, standardized coinage, and introduced Zoroastrian religious ideas, leaving enduring influences in these western regions.

Religious Innovations: Buddhism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism

This era was remarkable for the birth and rapid spread of major religious movements, notably Buddhism and Jainism. Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) and Mahavira (the founder of Jainism) actively preached across Northern South Asia, gaining substantial followings. Buddhism particularly found significant early patronage in Magadha.

Zoroastrianism, emerging from Persia, also impacted areas under Persian influence, particularly Gandhara and Balochistan, introducing new religious concepts and rituals that intermingled with local traditions.

Socio-Cultural and Caste Consolidation

The caste system became further entrenched, shaped increasingly by the Brahminical norms codified in the later Vedic texts. The division between the four major varnas—Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras—solidified further, influencing all aspects of social and religious life.

Archaeological Developments and Urbanism

Material culture saw the flourishing of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), widely associated with urban centers and elite culture, indicative of growing economic prosperity. The influential city of Taxila in present-day Punjab, Pakistan, emerged as a prominent educational and trade hub, reflecting a vibrant cultural and economic exchange extending to Central and West Asia.

Himalayan and Northeastern Interactions

The Himalayan territories—including modern-day Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, and present-day Sikkim—continued robust interactions with lowland kingdoms, facilitating the movement of goods, religious ideas, and cultural practices. Simultaneously, the northeastern regions of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram, and adjacent areas of Bangladesh and northwestern Myanmar developed distinctive regional identities and engaged in cultural exchanges with the Gangetic heartlands.

Cultural and Artistic Flourishing

The period witnessed remarkable artistic and architectural advancements. Influenced by religious developments, early Buddhist stupas and Jain temples began to dot the landscape, accompanied by sophisticated sculptures and artworks embodying religious and cultural ideals.

Peoples and Ethnic Dynamics

Ethnic groups such as the Pashtuns and Tajiks emerged distinctly in historical records during this period, especially within territories influenced by Persian culture and administration, adding further complexity and diversity to the region's demographic composition.

Legacy of the Age

The era from 621 to 478 BCE proved transformative for Upper South Asia, setting foundations for future imperial, religious, and cultural trajectories. The political dominance of Magadha, the advent of Buddhism and Jainism, and Persian administrative influences indelibly shaped the historical, social, and religious landscapes of the region.

The rudimentary administrative system headed by tribal chieftains is transformed by a number of regional republics or hereditary monarchies that devise ways to appropriate revenue and to conscript labor for expanding the areas of settlement and agriculture farther east and south, beyond the Narmada River.

These emergent states collect revenue through officials, maintain armies, and build new cities and highways.

By 600 BCE, sixteen such territorial powers—including the Magadha, Kosala, Kuru, and Gandhara—stretch across the North India plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bangladesh.

The right of a king to his throne, no matter how it is gained, is usually legitimized through elaborate sacrifice rituals and genealogies concocted by priests who ascribe to the king divine or superhuman origins.

The victory of good over evil is epitomized in the epic Ramayana (The Travels of Rama, or Ram in the preferred mod-ern form), while another epic, Mahabharata (Great Battle of the Descendants of Bharata), spells out the concept of dharma and duty.

More than twenty-five hundred years later, Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi, the father of modern India, will use these concepts in the fight for independence.

The Mahabharata records the feud between Aryan cousins that culminated in an epic battle in which both gods and mortals from many lands allegedly fought to the death, and the Ramayana recounts the kidnapping of Sita, Rama's wife, by Ravana, a demonic king of Lanka (Sri Lanka), her rescue by her husband (aided by his animal allies), and Rama's coronation, leading to a period of prosperity and justice.

In the early twenty-first century, these epics remain dear to the hearts of Hindus and are commonly read and enacted in many settings.

In the 1980s and 1990s, Ram's story will be exploited by Hindu militants and politicians to gain power, and the much disputed Ramjanmabhumi, the birth site of Ram, will become an extremely sensitive communal issue, potentially pitting Hindu majority against Muslim minority.

At about the same time, the semi-independent kingdom of Gandhara, roughly located in northern Pakistan and centered in the region of Peshawar, stands between the expanding kingdoms of the Ganges Valley to the east and the Achaemenid Empire of Persia to the west.

Gandhara probably comes under the influence of Persia during the reign of Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE).

A number of small princely states rise and fall in North India in the sixth century BCE.

The semi-independent kingdom of Gandhara, roughly located in northern Pakistan and centered in the region of Peshawar, stands between the expanding kingdoms of the Ganges Valley to the east and the Achaemenid Empire of Persia to the west.

Gandhara probably comes under the influence of Persia during the reign of Cyrus the Great, who reigns from 559 to 530 BCE.

Upper South Asia (477–334 BCE): Consolidation and Cross-Cultural Exchange

Expansion and Dominance of Magadha

Between 477 and 334 BCE, the Magadhan Empire further expanded its dominance under dynamic rulers such as Bimbisara and his son, Ajatashatru. Magadha, centered at Pataliputra (modern-day Patna, Bihar), solidified control over vast territories by successfully annexing neighboring states including the powerful kingdoms of Kosala and Anga. Under the Shaishunaga dynasty established by Shishunaga, Magadha also absorbed the influential kingdom of Avanti, enhancing its geopolitical significance. Its military prowess, economic strength, and strategic geographical position contributed to its ascendance as the region's dominant power.

Persian Influence and Achaemenid Integration

The western territories of Gandhara, Balochistan, and present-day regions of Afghanistan continued under Achaemenid Persian influence, fostering significant administrative and economic integration. The Persian satrapy system, coinage, road networks such as the famous Royal Road, and cultural influences—including Zoroastrianism—permeated these territories, promoting stability and interconnectedness between Northern South Asia and the broader Persian Empire. Concurrently, the local Gandhara Kingdom retained regional prominence, known for its unique synthesis of Indo-Aryan and Persian cultures.

Emergence and Spread of Buddhism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism

Buddhism and Jainism significantly expanded their followings during this period. With active royal patronage in Magadha, Buddhism notably flourished. Monastic communities and stupas proliferated, spreading throughout Northern South Asia. Jainism, under continued advocacy by disciples following Mahavira, established influential centers, further shaping regional religious and philosophical traditions. Concurrently, Zoroastrianism gained prominence in western territories under Persian rule, introducing additional religious perspectives into the region's cultural milieu.

Cultural Integration and Urbanization

The period witnessed increased urbanization characterized by prosperous trade hubs and centers of learning, such as Taxila in present-day Punjab, Pakistan. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery became more prevalent, symbolizing elite urban culture and reflecting extensive economic exchange. Urban centers became nodes of cultural synthesis, blending local traditions with Persian and emerging pan-Indian influences.

Societal Structures and Caste Solidification

Social structures, heavily influenced by Brahminical norms, grew more rigid. The caste system became deeply institutionalized, further defining societal roles and religious practices. Texts composed during this period reinforced distinctions between the four principal varnas—Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.

Himalayan and Northeastern Regional Developments

Interactions continued robustly between the Himalayan territories—including modern Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, and present-day Sikkim—and the Gangetic heartlands. Concurrently, northeastern regions including Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura,  Mizoram, and adjacent territories of Bangladesh and northwestern Myanmar continued evolving unique cultural identities, engaging in trade and cultural exchanges with the central regions.

Small kingdoms and tribal confederations in the Tarai region (southern Nepal), notably the Shakya clan of Kapilvastu, flourished economically and culturally, benefiting from interactions with larger kingdoms. The steady eastward migration of Khasa peoples (Indo-Aryan speakers) reshaped demographics in western Nepal and its eastern reaches. Indigenous Kirāta peoples, speaking Tibeto-Burman languages, maintained autonomy and distinct identities in Himalayan foothills, largely untouched by dominant Indo-Aryan cultural currents.

Artistic and Architectural Advancements

Artistic traditions thrived, characterized by remarkable sculptures, intricate pottery, and architectural innovations linked to religious monuments such as stupas and early temples. These structures symbolized the increasing religious and cultural complexities within Northern South Asia.

Emergence of Ethnic and Cultural Identities

Distinct ethnic identities, including those of the Pashtuns and Tajiks, became increasingly visible, particularly in western and northwestern territories under Persian administrative structures. These groups contributed significantly to the demographic and cultural diversity of the region, influencing trade, warfare, and cultural exchanges.

Legacy of the Age

The era from 477 to 334 BCE represented a critical period of consolidation, cultural synthesis, and cross-cultural exchange in Upper South Asia. The expanded Magadhan dominance under the Shaishunaga dynasty, Persian influences in the west, and the widespread adoption of Buddhism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism shaped enduring historical trajectories, laying foundational stones for subsequent empires and cultural traditions.

The Persian Empire falls to Alexander the Great in 330 BCE, and he continues his march eastward through Afghanistan and into India.

Alexander defeats Porus, the Gandharan ruler of Taxila, in 326 BCE and marches on to the Ravi River before turning back.

The return march through Sindh and Balochistan ends with Alexander's death at Babylon in 323 BCE.

Greek rule does not survive in northwestern India, although a school of art known as Indo-Greek develops and influences art as far as Central Asia.

The region of Gandhara is conquered by Chandragupta (r. ca. 321-ca. 297 BCE), the founder of the Mauryan Empire, the first universal state of northern India, with its capital at present-day Patna in Bihar.

His grandson, Ashoka (r. ca. 274-ca. 236 BCE), becomes a Buddhist.

Taxila becomes a leading center of Buddhist learning.

Successors to Alexander at times control the northwestern region of present-day Pakistan and even the Punjab after Mauryan power wanes in the region.