East Europe (909 BCE – 819 CE) Early Iron and Antiquity — Scythian–Sarmatian Steppe, Greek Ports, Balts & Finno-Ugric Forests, and Early Slavs

Geographic and Environmental Context

East Europe includes Belarus, Ukraine, and European Russia west of the Urals (including the forest, forest-steppe, and steppe zones and the Russian republics west of the Urals).

• Anchors: Scythian Pontic steppe (Lower Dnieper–Don), Taurica/Crimea Greek ports (Olbia, Chersonesus, Bosporus), Sarmatian Lower Volga–Don, Balts on the Upper Dvina–Neman, Finno-Ugric Volga–Oka forests, and the forest-steppe of Kyiv–Chernihiv.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

• First-millennium variability; steppe aridity pulses alternated with good pasture years; rivers remained trade arteries.

Societies & Political Developments

• Scythians (7th–3rd c. BCE) dominated Pontic steppe; later Sarmatians (3rd c. BCE–3rd c. CE) advanced from the east.

• Greek colonies flourished along the Black Sea coast, brokering grain, slaves, and crafts.

• Forest zone: Balts consolidated; Finno-Ugric groups (Merya, Muroma, Mari ancestors) sustained fishing–hunting and garden plots.

• Przeworsk–Zarubintsy and later Chernyakhiv cultural spheres in the forest-steppe bridged steppe and Carpathians.

• Gothic and Hunnic incursions (3rd–5th c. CE) reshaped steppe polities; Avars skirted the Carpathians; Khazars(7th–10th c.) organized lower Volga–Don tribute (Saltovo–Mayaki culture).

• Volga Bulgars formed on the middle Volga (7th–10th c.); Early Slavs (Prague–Korchak, Pen’kovka) spread through Dnieper–Bug–Pripet basins (5th–7th c.), foreshadowing Rus’.

Economy & Trade

• Steppe exported horses, hides, slaves; imported Greek wine/oil, metal goods; Greek ports shipped grain from forest-steppe.

• Forest traded furs, wax, honey via Dvina–Volga–Dnieper; Khazar and Bulgar routes taxed Volga traffic to the Caspian.

Technology & Material Culture

• Iron weaponry; saddles and stirrups (late); composite bows; Greek ceramics/coins; hillfort gorodishcha with ramparts; black-burnished and wheel-made wares in late centuries.

Belief & Symbolism

• Sky-god/Tengri and ancestor cults among steppe riders; Greek polytheism then Christianity in ports; Zoroastrian, Jewish, Christian, Muslim minorities under Khazars; forest animisms persisted.

• Kurgan art (animal style), Greek funerary stelae, and forest-zone ritual pits coexisted.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Pastoral nomadism tracked pasture cycles; mixed farming in forest-steppe stabilised grain; river/port networks re-routed trade during wars.

Legacy & Transition

By 819 CE, East Europe was a braided frontier: Scythian–Sarmatian legacies, Greek–Khazar–Bulgar economic lattices, Balto-Finnic forests, and Early Slavs in the Dnieper–Pripet. The political and economic scaffolding for Kyivan Rus’ (emerging in the 9th century) and later medieval polities was in place.

The present Ukraine is inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians during the Iron Age.

Beginning in the sixth century BCE, colonies of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and the Byzantine Empire, such as Tyras, Olbia and Chersonesus, are founded on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea.

These colonies thrive well into the sixth century CE.

The Goths stay in the area but come under the sway of the Huns from the 370s CE.

In the seventh century, the territory of eastern Ukraine is the center of Old Great Bulgaria.

Eastern Southeast Europe (364–375 CE): Barbarian Invasions and Cultural Transitions

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Onset of Barbarian Invasions

Between 364 and 375 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe experienced intensified invasions by Germanic and Central Asian tribes, dramatically reshaping the region's demographic and cultural landscape. The first major incursions included those by the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Gepids, and later the nomadic pastoralist Huns, who arrived around 370 from Central Asia. These groups swept across the Danube frontier, overwhelming Roman defenses and precipitating a wave of instability and population displacement.

Decline of Dacian Settlements

As Rome's power receded from the region, Dacia became increasingly vulnerable, transforming into a thoroughfare for invading tribes aiming for wealthier lands further west and south. Roman-built towns and settlements were progressively abandoned, infrastructure deteriorated, and rural life declined precipitously, leaving local populations exposed to frequent plundering and disruptions.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Collapse and Insecurity

The relentless incursions severely undermined economic stability, trade, and agriculture. Crumbling Roman roads became unsafe due to highwaymen and banditry, severely impacting trade and travel. While some fortified urban centers struggled to maintain economic activity, rural commerce and agricultural productivity dramatically decreased under continuous threat.

Infrastructure Decay

Roman infrastructure, once the backbone of regional connectivity and prosperity, fell into disrepair. Roads, aqueducts, and urban defenses deteriorated due to lack of maintenance, resources, and security, symbolizing the broader regional decline.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Emergence of Dacian Ethnic Identity

Despite political and economic turmoil, this era marked the consolidation of a distinct Dacian ethnic identity, emerging from the fusion of Roman colonists, indigenous Getae, and coastal Greek populations. This cultural synthesis fostered new forms of linguistic expression and religious practices, laying foundations for later Romanian cultural heritage.

Linguistic Transition and Literacy

The Vulgar Latin language increasingly replaced the native Thracian tongue in commerce, administration, and daily life, significantly advancing literacy among local populations, especially those involved with the Roman military and administrative systems. This linguistic shift laid the groundwork for the evolution of the modern Romanian language.

Social and Religious Developments

Religious Syncretism and Continuity

A notable religious fusion occurred during this period, reflecting both Roman and indigenous influences. The local populace, having embraced deities from the Greco-Roman pantheon such as Jupiter, Diana, and Venus, also retained indigenous religious traditions, such as cremation rites originally practiced by the Getae, often incorporating Roman customs such as placing coins with cremated remains for Charon, the mythological ferryman of the dead.

Mithraic and Indigenous Beliefs

Some inhabitants continued the worship of Mithras, the Persian god of light popular among Roman legionnaires. These religious practices exemplified the diverse and syncretic spiritual landscape that persisted even amidst regional upheaval.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 364 to 375 CE represented a critical turning point for Eastern Southeast Europe, characterized by severe barbarian invasions, economic disintegration, infrastructure collapse, and profound cultural transformation. Despite these disruptions, significant cultural and linguistic developments took root, ultimately shaping the region's enduring ethnic, linguistic, and religious herita

Eastern Southeast Europe (364–375 CE): Barbarian Invasions and Cultural Transitions

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Onset of Barbarian Invasions

Between 364 and 375 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe experienced intensified invasions by Germanic and Central Asian tribes, dramatically reshaping the region's demographic and cultural landscape. The first major incursions included those by the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Gepids, and later the nomadic pastoralist Huns, who arrived around 370 from Central Asia. These groups swept across the Danube frontier, overwhelming Roman defenses and precipitating a wave of instability and population displacement.

Decline of Dacian Settlements

As Rome's power receded from the region, Dacia became increasingly vulnerable, transforming into a thoroughfare for invading tribes aiming for wealthier lands further west and south. Roman-built towns and settlements were progressively abandoned, infrastructure deteriorated, and rural life declined precipitously, leaving local populations exposed to frequent plundering and disruptions.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Collapse and Insecurity

The relentless incursions severely undermined economic stability, trade, and agriculture. Crumbling Roman roads became unsafe due to highwaymen and banditry, severely impacting trade and travel. While some fortified urban centers struggled to maintain economic activity, rural commerce and agricultural productivity dramatically decreased under continuous threat.

Infrastructure Decay

Roman infrastructure, once the backbone of regional connectivity and prosperity, fell into disrepair. Roads, aqueducts, and urban defenses deteriorated due to lack of maintenance, resources, and security, symbolizing the broader regional decline.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Emergence of Dacian Ethnic Identity

Despite political and economic turmoil, this era marked the consolidation of a distinct Dacian ethnic identity, emerging from the fusion of Roman colonists, indigenous Getae, and coastal Greek populations. This cultural synthesis fostered new forms of linguistic expression and religious practices, laying foundations for later Romanian cultural heritage.

Linguistic Transition and Literacy

The Vulgar Latin language increasingly replaced the native Thracian tongue in commerce, administration, and daily life, significantly advancing literacy among local populations, especially those involved with the Roman military and administrative systems. This linguistic shift laid the groundwork for the evolution of the modern Romanian language.

Social and Religious Developments

Religious Syncretism and Continuity

A notable religious fusion occurred during this period, reflecting both Roman and indigenous influences. The local populace, having embraced deities from the Greco-Roman pantheon such as Jupiter, Diana, and Venus, also retained indigenous religious traditions, such as cremation rites originally practiced by the Getae, often incorporating Roman customs such as placing coins with cremated remains for Charon, the mythological ferryman of the dead.

Mithraic and Indigenous Beliefs

Some inhabitants continued the worship of Mithras, the Persian god of light popular among Roman legionnaires. These religious practices exemplified the diverse and syncretic spiritual landscape that persisted even amidst regional upheaval.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 364 to 375 CE represented a critical turning point for Eastern Southeast Europe, characterized by severe barbarian invasions, economic disintegration, infrastructure collapse, and profound cultural transformation. Despite these disruptions, significant cultural and linguistic developments took root, ultimately shaping the region's enduring ethnic, linguistic, and religious herita

Barbarian tribes begin to prey upon the Roman Empire in the fourth century, and the fortunes of the Illyrian-populated lands sag.

The Germanic Goths and Asiatic Huns are the first to arrive, invading in mid-century.

Dacia without Rome's protection becomes a conduit for invading tribes who, targeting richer lands further west and south, plunder Dacian settlements in passing.

Dacian towns are abandoned, highwaymen menace travelers along crumbling Roman roads, and rural life decays.

The Visigoths, Huns, Ostrogoths, Gepids, and Lombards sweep over the land from the third to the fifth centuries.

The Huns, a nomadic pastoralist people from Central Asia, invade southeastern Europe around 370 and remain in the background, gradually subjugating many Germanic and other tribes.

The terrified Goths and related tribes burst through the Danube frontier into the Roman Empire, and the Balkans become once again a battlefield for German armies.

The Huns, victorious in the Battle of the Tanais River, fought on the traditional border between Asia and Europe, destroy the empire of the Alans and cross the Volga and the Don.

The rise of the Huns, which puts pressure on all the Germanic tribes to the immediate west, soon overwhelms the Gothic kingdoms.

Many of the Goths migrate into Roman territory in the Balkans, while others remain north of the Danube under Hunnic rule.

Eastern Southeast Europe (376–387 CE): Gothic Crisis and the Battle of Adrianople

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Arrival and Settlement of the Goths

In 376 CE, a massive influx of displaced Goths, primarily the Thervingi, led by Fritigern, arrived at the banks of the Danube River, fleeing from the advancing Huns. They requested refuge within the Roman Empire, and Emperor Valens allowed their settlement on the empire’s southern frontier, promising land, protection, and food provisions in exchange for their status as foederati (allied peoples serving Roman interests).

Roman Mismanagement and Humanitarian Crisis

Despite assurances, Roman corruption and logistical failures resulted in inadequate provisions, severe famine, and inhumane conditions. The Goths, largely retaining their arms due to Roman corruption, were confined without sufficient food, forced into the desperate measure of trading their own people—especially children and women—as slaves in exchange for dog meat to survive. This severe humanitarian crisis precipitated open revolt.

Military Developments and Conflict

Outbreak of Gothic Revolt

Frustrated by Roman treachery and incompetence, the Goths began open rebellion following a failed assassination attempt on their leaders in the city of Marcianople. By 377 CE, the Goths had organized into a substantial military threat, systematically plundering the countryside, overwhelming weak Roman defenses, and laying waste to significant areas of Thrace and the Balkans.

Battle of Adrianople (378 CE)

Emperor Valens personally led a Roman army north from Constantinople in an attempt to defeat the Gothic rebellion decisively. However, the Roman forces suffered a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Adrianople (378 CE), in which Valens himself was killed. This event marked a pivotal turning point, severely weakening the empire’s military capabilities and prestige.

Subsequent Gothic Raids and Roman Response

Following their victory, the Goths gained almost unchecked freedom to raid and pillage. In 379 CE, they moved northwest, ravaging the region of Dacia, and subsequently split into two factions due to logistical strain: the Tervingi under Fritigern moved southeast toward Macedonia, while the Greuthungi traveled north into Pannonia, where they suffered defeat by the Western Roman Emperor Gratian.

Economic and Technological Developments

Devastation of Regional Economy

The Gothic incursions severely disrupted the local economies. Agricultural production collapsed, trade routes were compromised, and significant damage to urban centers and rural infrastructure created economic instability. Many regions of the Roman Balkans experienced long-term economic stagnation, with some areas never fully recovering.

Changes in Military Logistics

The crisis compelled the Romans to rethink their military strategies and logistics, prompting significant adaptations, including reliance on allied barbarian foederati troops. This shift in military policy laid groundwork for future Roman-barbarian relations, altering military provisioning and infrastructure demands.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Cultural Displacement and Decline

The widespread destruction and demographic upheaval significantly disrupted cultural continuity. Cities like Adrianople and Marcianople witnessed destruction or severe damage, impacting the preservation and transmission of classical traditions. Cultural activities increasingly shifted toward defensive and survivalist priorities.

Social and Religious Developments

Emergence of Foederati System

Following the Gothic victory, Rome, facing irreversible territorial and military realities, formally recognized the Goths as an autonomous people within imperial boundaries. The peace treaty of October 3, 382 CE, represented a monumental shift in imperial policy, setting a precedent for future barbarian settlements within the empire, effectively institutionalizing the foederati system.

Religious and Social Adaptations

Amidst this turmoil, social structures and religious practices adapted to new realities. Indigenous and Roman traditions persisted, though significantly challenged by the profound instability and shifting demographics resulting from Gothic integration.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 376 to 387 CE represented one of the most significant turning points in Roman and European history. The catastrophic Roman defeat at Adrianople symbolized the empire’s increasing inability to manage internal crises and external threats effectively. For the first time, Rome accommodated a substantial autonomous barbarian group within its borders, establishing a critical precedent that hastened the eventual fragmentation of Roman authority and the rise of successor barbarian kingdoms throughout Europe.

Displaced Goths and other tribes arrive in the summer and fall of 376 on the Danube River, on the border of the Roman Empire, requesting asylum from the Huns.

Fritigern, a leader of the Thervingi, appeas to the Roman emperor Valens to be allowed to settle with his people on the south bank of the Danube, where they hope to find refuge from the Huns, who lack the ability to cross the wide river in force.

Valens permits this, and promises the Goths farming land, grain rations, and protection under the Roman armies as “allies” (foederati).

The ones that crossed are supposed to have their weapons confiscated; however, the Romans in charge accept bribes to allow the Goths to retain their weapons.

With so many people in such a small area, famine strikes the Goths, and Rome is unable to supply them with either the food they were promised or the land; they herd the Goths into a temporary holding area surrounded by an armed Roman garrison.

There is only enough grain left for the Roman garrison, who simply let the Goths starve.

The Romans provide a grim alternative: the trade of slaves (often children and young women) for dog meat.

When Fritigern appeals to Valens for help, he is told that his people will find food and trade in the markets of the distant city of Marcianople.

Having no alternative, some of the Goths trek south in a death march, losing the sickly and old along the path.

When they finally reach Marcianople's gates, they are barred by the city's military garrison and denied entry; moreover, the Romans unsuccessfully try to assassinate the Goth leaders during a banquet.

Open revolt begins.

The main body of Goths spend the rest of 376 and early 377 near the Danube plundering food from the immediate region.

Roman garrisons are able to defend isolated forts but most of the country is vulnerable to Gothic plunder.

War begins in earnest in late winter 377.

The remaining Goths move south from the Danube to Marcianople, and next appear near Adrianople (modern Edirne).

The Roman response is to send a force under Valens to meet and defeat the Goths.

Valens moves north from Constantinople in 378 and is defeated (and himself killed) at the Battle of Adrianople.

The victory gives the Goths freedom to roam at will, plundering throughout Thrace for the rest of 378.

The Goths meet only light Roman resistance in 379 and advance northwest into Dacia, plundering that region.

The Goths divide in 380 into Terving and Greuthung armies, in part because of the difficulty of keeping such a large number supplied.

The Greuthungi move north into Pannonia, where they are defeated by western emperor Gratian.

The Tervingi under Fritigern move south and east to Macedonia, where they take "protection money" from towns and cities rather than sacking them outright.

Forces of the western Empire in 381 drive the Goths back to Thrace, where finally, peace is made on October 3, 382.

The Goths by the end of the war have killed a Roman emperor, destroyed a Roman army and laid waste large tracts of the Roman Balkans, much of which will never recover.

The Roman Empire has for the first time negotiated a peace settlement with an autonomous barbarian tribe inside the borders of the Empire, a situation that a generation before would have been unthinkable.

The lesson is not lost on other tribes, including the Goths themselves, who will not long remain peaceful.

Rome, after the crushing defeat, is no longer in a position to drive all its enemies from its territories.

Tribes that can no longer be expelled begin to be settled within the empire as foederati, receiving subsidies and in return supplying troops.

The Western Empire under the pressure of continued invasions will collapse within a century and be carved up into barbarian kingdoms.

Atlantic West Europe, 376–387: Crisis at the Frontiers, Imperial Instability, and Religious Expansion

Political and Military Developments

• Gothic Crisis and Frontier Instability (376–378)

  • The influx of Gothic refugees fleeing the Huns around 376 destabilized Roman frontier defenses along the Rhine and Danube, indirectly impacting Atlantic West Europe. Troop redeployments and weakened frontier garrisons exposed Gaul's northeastern borders (Alsace and the Rhineland) to renewed pressure from Germanic incursions.

• Battle of Adrianople and Western Consequences (378)

  • The disastrous defeat of Roman Emperor Valens by Goths at the Battle of Adrianople (378) severely weakened imperial military capacity. Its repercussions resonated across Gaul and the Rhine frontier, increasing the vulnerability of Atlantic West Europe to raids and incursions.

• Rise of Magnus Maximus (383–387)

  • In 383, Roman general Magnus Maximus, commander in Britain, revolted and was proclaimed emperor by his troops. He rapidly secured control over Gaul, establishing his capital in Trier, briefly restoring regional stability.

  • Magnus Maximus expanded his authority over Hispania, becoming a dominant figure in Atlantic West Europe. His reign temporarily strengthened imperial governance but ended when defeated by Theodosius I in 387.

Economic and Social Developments

• Disruption and Economic Instability

  • Recurrent instability from military actions, troop movements, and frontier incursions disrupted trade and economic activity, particularly in Alsace and eastern Gaul. Major cities like Trier, while prosperous under Maximus, experienced fluctuating conditions due to shifting imperial fortunes.

• Urban Centers as Refuge and Resistance

  • Cities such as Trier, Bordeaux, and Lyon remained vital economic and administrative hubs, often serving as refuges amid turmoil. Urban elites played critical roles in maintaining social order and governance amidst shifting imperial allegiances.

Religious and Cultural Developments

• Christianity's Expansion amid Turmoil

  • Despite instability, Christianity continued to flourish, strengthened by charismatic religious leaders such as Martin of Tours (active until 397) and Ambrose of Milan, whose influence extended deeply into Atlantic West Europe.

  • Martin’s extensive missionary work, particularly in rural regions, facilitated the widespread adoption of Christianity, embedding the faith permanently in regional social structures.

• Intellectual and Cultural Continuity

  • Despite political and military turbulence, cities such as Bordeaux retained vibrant intellectual and cultural life, preserving classical learning and fostering the growth of Christian literature.

Significance

The era from 376 to 387 was marked by frontier crises, political upheaval, and the rise and fall of regional strongmen. Despite the disruptions, Atlantic West Europe saw Christianity deepen its influence, cultural continuity persist, and urban centers demonstrate resilience. These complex dynamics set a critical backdrop for the transformative transitions to follow.

The Huns had appeared some years after the middle of the fourth century from the steppes beyond the Volga River.

Having first overrun the Alani, who occupy the plains between the Volga and the Don rivers, …