The First English Civil War breaks out in 1642, largely as a result of an ongoing series of conflicts between James' son, Charles I, and Parliament.

The defeat of the Royalist army by the New Model Army of Parliament at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645 effectively destroys the king's forces.

Charles surrenders to the Scottish army at Newark.

He is eventually handed over to the English Parliament in early 1647.

He escapes, and the Second English Civil War begins, although it is a short conflict, with the New Model Army quickly securing the country.

The capture and subsequent trial of Charles leads to his beheading in January 1649 at Whitehall Gate in London, making England a republic.

The trial and execution of Charles by his own subjects shocks the rest of Europe (the king had argued to the end that only God could judge him) and is a precursor of sorts to the beheading of Louis XVI one hundred and forty-five years later.

The New Model Army, under the command of Oliver Cromwell, now scores decisive victories against Royalist armies in Ireland and Scotland.

Cromwell is given the title Lord Protector in 1653, making him 'king in all but name' to his critics.

After he dies in 1658, his son Richard Cromwell succeeds him in the office but he is forced to abdicate within a year.

For a while it looks as if a new civil war will begin as the New Model Army splits into factions.

Troops stationed in Scotland under the command of George Monck eventually march on London to restore order.

The monarchy is restored in 1660, with King Charles II returning to London.

Northwest Europe (1540–1551 CE): Reformation Consolidation, Monarchical Power, and Cultural Flourishing

England: Religious Consolidation under Henry VIII and Edward VI

The era was defined by continued religious reform and consolidation under Henry VIII and his successor, Edward VI. Henry VIII reinforced his break with Rome by dissolving the remaining monasteries and redistributing church properties, solidifying the Anglican establishment. Following Henry’s death in 1547, Edward VI ascended as a minor under the regency of the Duke of Somerset and later John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. Under Edward, Protestantism advanced significantly through measures like the Book of Common Prayer (1549) and the Act of Uniformity, establishing Protestant worship and doctrine throughout England. Henry VIII also patronized the art of gun founding, significantly improving English artillery capabilities, notably through developing hollow shells filled with powder.

Scotland: Conflict and the Rough Wooing

Scotland faced considerable turmoil following the death of James V in 1542, shortly after the catastrophic Scottish defeat at the Battle of Solway Moss. His infant daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots, succeeded him, prompting regencies marked by political instability and intense diplomatic struggles. Henry VIII sought to enforce the marriage of his son Edward to Mary in the Rough Wooing, an aggressive campaign of border raids and invasions, escalating tensions and violence throughout the period.

Ireland: Continued English Expansion and Gaelic Resistance

English influence in Ireland expanded under successive Tudor administrations. In 1541, Henry VIII was declared King of Ireland by the Irish Parliament, transforming the medieval lordship into a full kingdom. This was intended to increase English legitimacy and authority but intensified opposition from Gaelic and Hiberno-Norman lords, who resisted efforts at centralization. The period saw ongoing military campaigns and rebellions, highlighting persistent tensions and the complexity of English rule in Ireland.

Scandinavia: Lutheranism and Royal Centralization

Scandinavian kingdoms further solidified Lutheranism and central royal power. In Denmark, Christian III institutionalized Lutheranism, consolidating royal control over ecclesiastical affairs and greatly diminishing the influence of the Catholic Church.

Iceland: Firm Establishment of Lutheranism

In Iceland, Lutheran reforms were rigorously enforced by Danish authorities, formally suppressing Catholic practices. Bishop Jón Arason, the last significant Catholic figure, strongly opposed the Danish-led reformation but was ultimately executed in 1550 along with two of his sons. His execution symbolized the decisive end of Catholic resistance and marked the firm establishment of Lutheranism in Iceland, profoundly reshaping its religious and cultural landscape.

Cultural and Intellectual Developments

Culturally, this period was marked by continued intellectual vigor. Humanist thought significantly influenced education and literature across the region. English writers, scholars, and reformers benefited from the spread of printed texts, which promoted literacy and the dissemination of Protestant theology. Architecturally, the Tudor style further evolved, prominently featuring symmetrical designs, decorative chimneys, elaborate fireplaces, and richly ornamented interiors.

Maritime Expansion and Exploration

Maritime ambitions continued to grow, particularly in England, where seafaring ventures and exploration became increasingly significant. English explorers sought new routes and commercial opportunities, laying early groundwork for later overseas expansion. Efforts in maritime technology, encouraged by Henry VIII's improvements in artillery, enhanced English naval capabilities.

Legacy of the Era

By 1551 CE, Northwest Europe had firmly entrenched Protestant reforms and centralized royal authority. These developments not only reshaped the region's religious and political landscapes but also fostered lasting cultural transformations. The consolidation of monarchical power, the enforcement of Protestantism, and burgeoning exploration initiatives significantly impacted Northwest Europe, setting a decisive stage for future historical developments.

James V of Scotland, after coming of age and assuming control, had overthrown the Angus faction, and renewed Scotland's Auld Alliance with France.

He had married first a daughter of Francis I of France, and when she died a few months later of tuberculosis, he had married Mary of Guise.

Tension between England and Scotland increased once again; not least because Henry had already broken with the Roman Catholic church and embarked upon the Dissolution of the Monasteries, whereas James holds to Rome and gives authority to powerful prelates such as David Beaton.

A cruel young man, James has in recent years instituted a near reign of terror in Scotland, and his financial exactions do not endear him to his subjects.

His aggressive, vindictive policies have lost him the support of the nobility, weakening his army.

Henry VIII's plans for royal intermarriage with the Scottish crown have failed, and Ireland offers its crown to James.

Henry in 1541 illegally proclaims himself overlord of Scotland, France’s ally.

The Reformation has fundamentally changed Ireland, the King of England in 1532 having broken with Papal authority.

The Fitzgerald dynasty of Kildare, who had become the effective rulers of Ireland in the fifteenth century, had become very unreliable allies of the Tudor monarchs, having had in 1487 invited Burgundian troops into Dublin to crown the Yorkist pretender, Lambert Simnel, as King of England.

Silken Thomas Fitzgerald in 1536 had again gone into open rebellion against the crown again.

Henry VIII, having put down this rebellion, had resolved to bring Ireland under English government control so the island will not become a base for future rebellions or foreign invasions of England.

He upgrades Ireland in 1541 from a lordship to a full Kingdom and is proclaimed King of Ireland at a meeting of the Irish Parliament, the first such to be attended by the Gaelic Irish chieftains as well as the Hiberno-Norman aristocracy.

With the institutions of government in place, the next step will to extend the control of the English Kingdom of Ireland over all of its claimed territory.

This will take nearly a century, with various English administrations in the process either negotiating or fighting with the independent Irish and Old English lords.

Westmeath, a part of the ancient kingdom of Meath on Ireland’s central plain, becomes an independent county, as part of the Tudor reorganization of Ireland as a kingdom.

There have been preliminary border skirmishes once again between England and Scotland.

James's army has been weakened by the disaffection of the Protestant nobles.

Mutinous and poorly led, it crosses into England and on November 24 is easily routed near the border by an outnumbered English force at Solway Moss.

Northwest Europe (1552–1563 CE): Religious Turmoil, Dynastic Shifts, and Cultural Advances

England: Protestant Intensification and Dynastic Crisis

The religious policies initiated under Edward VI intensified Protestant reforms throughout England. The publication of the revised Book of Common Prayer (1552) firmly established Protestant worship, shaping the Anglican tradition. Edward VI's untimely death in 1553 led to a brief dynastic crisis. Although Lady Jane Grey was briefly proclaimed queen through the machinations of the Duke of Northumberland, popular and political support rallied behind Edward’s Catholic half-sister, Mary I, who ascended the throne after nine days. Mary's reign marked a sharp reversal of religious policy, returning England to Catholicism and instituting severe measures against Protestant dissent, leading to the execution of prominent Protestants and earning her the sobriquet "Bloody Mary."

Scotland: Religious Conflict and the Rise of Protestantism

Scotland experienced significant religious turmoil during this era. The regency government of Mary of Guise, mother to Mary, Queen of Scots, faced mounting opposition as Protestant reformers increasingly challenged Catholic dominance. The Protestant preacher John Knox, influenced by Calvinist doctrines, became prominent, laying foundations for the Scottish Reformation. Political instability heightened tensions, setting the stage for deeper religious and political conflicts.

Ireland: English Consolidation and Continued Resistance

In Ireland, English attempts to consolidate centralized authority continued, meeting persistent resistance from Gaelic and Hiberno-Norman lords. The Irish Parliament remained an instrument of English control, but rebellions and local conflicts repeatedly challenged its authority. English administrators intensified efforts to impose Protestantism, encountering stubborn adherence to Catholic traditions among the majority of the population.

Scandinavia: Consolidation of Lutheranism and Royal Power

The Lutheran Church was firmly consolidated under Danish King Christian III, who continued to centralize royal authority by reinforcing Lutheran doctrines and practices throughout Denmark and its territories, including Norway and Iceland. The establishment of Protestant ecclesiastical structures strengthened royal influence, significantly reducing the power of traditional nobility and Catholic institutions.

Iceland: Reinforcement of Lutheran Authority

Lutheran authority became entrenched in Iceland following the execution of Bishop Jón Arason in 1550. Danish authorities continued to enforce Lutheran reforms rigorously, reshaping Icelandic religious practices and cultural traditions. The new ecclesiastical order facilitated tighter Danish administrative control and further integrated Iceland into the broader Lutheran Scandinavian sphere.

Cultural and Intellectual Developments

The period saw significant cultural advancements, particularly in literature and education. Humanist scholarship flourished across the region, further disseminated by advancements in printing technology. English intellectuals and writers navigated religious upheaval, influencing the literary landscape and contributing to cultural developments that would culminate in the Elizabethan Renaissance. Architecture continued to evolve under Tudor influences, marked by symmetrical designs, elaborate detailing, and increasingly sophisticated internal ornamentation.

Maritime Expansion and Commercial Growth

Maritime exploration and commercial expansion continued to play a significant role, particularly in England, where advancements in naval technology and navigation furthered ambitions for overseas trade and exploration. Enhanced naval capabilities, spurred by technological advancements initiated in previous eras, laid critical foundations for England’s future maritime prominence.

Legacy of the Era

By 1563 CE, Northwest Europe had witnessed intensified religious conflicts, critical dynastic shifts, and vibrant cultural and intellectual developments. The religious oscillations between Protestant and Catholic rule, combined with strengthened monarchical control and cultural flourishing, decisively shaped the social, political, and cultural trajectories of the region, setting the stage for profound changes in subsequent decades.

Queen Mary, following a moderate start to her reign, opts for a hard line against Protestants, whom she regards as heretics and a threat to her authority.

She begins permitting the burning of Anglicans for heresy.

English Protestant reformer John Rogers, the editor of Matthew's Bible and former lecturer at Saint Paul’s cathedral, had been imprisoned after Mary’s accession to the English throne and sentenced to death.

When Rogers is burned to death at Smithfield on February 4, 1555, he becomes the first Protestant to be martyred under the Tudor queen, who, in the ensuing persecution, will come to be known as "Bloody Mary."

She urges her sister Elizabeth to change to the Roman Catholic faith, but the princess, instead of converting, maintains a skillful show of allegiance to suit her own conscience and ambitions.

Henry VIII's creation of the Kingdom of Ireland in 1542 had not been recognized by Europe's Catholic powers.

Mary obtains a papal bull in 1555 confirming that she and Philip are the monarchs of Ireland, and thereby the Church accepts the personal link between the kingdoms of Ireland and England.

Philip finds his queen, who is eleven years his senior, to be physically unattractive; after fourteen months of marriage, he leaves for Spain under a false excuse.