Upper South Asia (1840–1851 CE): Wars, Annexations, and Internal Transformations

British Expansion and Annexation

Between 1840 and 1851, the British East India Company aggressively expanded its territories, notably annexing Sindh in 1843 after defeating the local Talpur Mirs, and securing control of Punjab following two intense conflicts with the Sikh Empire. The decisive Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849) resulted in the full annexation of Punjab, including present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, extending British rule to the borders of Afghanistan.

The Aftermath of Anglo-Afghan Conflict

Following the catastrophic First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842), British ambitions in Afghanistan were dramatically scaled back. The British retreat from Kabul in January 1842 ended in tragedy, with nearly the entire army perishing in the snowbound mountain passes. In retaliation, Britain launched a punitive expedition to Kabul but ultimately restored Dost Mohammad Khan as Emir, withdrawing thereafter and temporarily relinquishing direct control.

Kashmir and the Treaty of Amritsar

In 1846, the British signed the Treaty of Amritsar, transferring control of Kashmir to the Hindu Dogra Dynasty under Maharaja Gulab Singh, creating a princely state that would remain under British paramountcy until 1947. This decision shaped Kashmir’s distinct socio-political trajectory, laying the groundwork for future tensions.

Internal Power Shifts in Nepal

This period was pivotal for Nepal, marked by political turmoil and violent shifts in power. The dramatic Kot Massacre of 1846, orchestrated by Jang Bahadur Kunwar (later known as Jung Bahadur Rana), effectively annihilated rival aristocratic factions, consolidating his absolute authority. He established the hereditary rule of the Rana dynasty, sidelining the monarchy and dominating Nepalese politics for more than a century.

Bhutanese Territorial Adjustments

In Bhutan, increasing British influence led to territorial adjustments. In 1841, Britain annexed the formerly Bhutanese-controlled Assam Duars, paying annual compensation. Bhutan further relinquished portions of the Bengal Duars to British administration in 1842, setting the stage for ongoing boundary disputes.

Socioeconomic Changes and Military Reforms in Punjab

The annexed Punjab was efficiently administered by British officials, who respected local customs and introduced substantial administrative and economic reforms. These policies, alongside significant infrastructure investments, later facilitated the region’s transformation into the "granary of India." The Punjabi Sikhs and Muslims became crucial recruits for the British Indian Army, reinforcing Punjab’s central role in subsequent colonial conflicts.

Cultural and Religious Adaptations

Throughout Northern South Asia, the era saw significant religious and cultural adaptations. In regions like Afghanistan and Punjab, traditional structures began adapting to British colonial demands, leading to an interplay of cooperation and resistance. Indigenous groups, such as the Pashtuns, increasingly navigated pressures from both internal rulers and external colonial forces.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 1840 to 1851 set critical precedents for colonial governance, notably in the forms of direct annexation and indirect rule through princely states. Dramatic political events, such as Nepal’s Rana coup and British military campaigns, left profound legacies shaping the future socio-political and cultural landscape of Northern South Asia.

Most of present-day Pakistan had been under independent rulers at the start of the nineteenth century.

Sindh is ruled by the Muslim Talpur mirs (chiefs) in three small states that are annexed by the British in 1843.

In the Punjab, the decline of the Mughal Empire had allowed the rise of the Sikhs, first as a military force and later as a political administration in Lahore.

The kingdom of Lahore is at its most powerful and expansive during the rule of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who has extended Sikh control has been beyond Peshawar, and had added Kashmir to his dominions in 1819.

After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, political conditions in the Punjab have deteriorated, and the British fight two wars with the Sikhs.

The second of these wars, in 1849, sees the annexation of the Punjab, including the present-day North-West Frontier Province, to the company's territories.

Kashmir is transferred by sale in the Treaty of Amritsar in 1850 to the Dogra Dynasty, which will rule the area under British paramountcy until 1947.

As the British increase their territory in India, so does Russia expand in Central Asia.

The East India Company had signed treaties with a number of Afghan rulers and with Ranjit Singh.

Russia backs Persian ambitions in western Afghanistan.

In 1838 the company's actions had brought about the First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-42).

Assisted by Sikh allies, the company has taken Kandahar and Kabul and made its own candidate amir.

The amir proves unpopular with the Afghans, however, and the British garrison's position becomes untenable.

The retreat of the British from Kabul in January 1842 is one of the worst disasters in British military history, as a column of more than sixteen thousand (about one-third soldiers, the rest camp followers) is annihilated by Afghan tribesmen as they struggle through the snow-bound passes on their way back to India.

The British later send a punitive expedition to Kabul, which it burns in retribution, but makes no attempt to reoccupy Afghanistan.

The British place Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdraw their military forces from Afghanistan

The Punjab, annexed in 1849, is governed a group of extraordinarily able British officers, serving first the company and later the British crown.

They avoid the administrative mistakes made earlier in Bengal.

A number of reforms are introduced, although local customs are generally respected.

Irrigation projects later in the century will help the Punjab become the granary of northern India.

The respect gained by the new administration can be gauged by the fact that within ten years Punjabi troops will be fighting for the British elsewhere in India to subdue the uprising of 1857-58.

The Punjab is to become the major recruiting area for the British Indian Army, recruiting both Sikhs and Muslims.

The Lawwrence School, Sanawar, is established in India by Henry Lawrence, whose intent is to provide for the education of the orphans of British soldiers and other poor white children.

In 1845 he had outlined the creation of a boarding school in the Indian highlands for boys and girls. He stated his aim as being to create

    ...an Asylum from the debilitating effects of the tropical climate and the demoralizing influence of Barrack-life; wherein they may obtain the benefits of a bracing climate, a healthy moral atmosphere, and a plain, useful, and above all religious education, adapted to fit them for employment suited to their position in life.

The school at Sanawar is established as the first such asylum on April 15, 1847, when fourteen girls and boys arrive at Sanawar in the charge of Lawrence's sister-in-law Mrs George Lawrence and a superintendent Healey.

The school is co-educational from its beginning.

The site had been chosen by Lawrence, after discussions with William Hodson and others, considering that it was an "ideal location" which "afforded the necessary requisites: isolation, ample space, water, a good altitude, and all not too far from British troops".

The construction of the buildings is paid for by Lawrence and other British officers, with a large contribution from Gulab Singh, the first Maharaja of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Hodson, who will later became famous for Hodson's Horse, supervises the construction of the school's first buildings and is still commemorated by the annual Hodson's Run, a competition between the school's houses.

In the early days some Anglo-Indian children will be admitted, but Lawrence insists that preference should be given to those of "pure European" parentage, as he considered they are more likely to suffer from the heat of the plains.

Kashmir is transferred by sale in the Treaty of Amritsar in 1850 to the Dogra Dynasty.

Upper South Asia (1852–1863 CE): Rebellion, Realignment, and Consolidation of British Power

Prelude to Revolt: British Policies and Tensions

Between 1852 and 1863, British authority in Upper South Asia appeared stable yet masked simmering discontent. The British increasingly relied on the Punjab and its predominantly Sikh and Muslim troops, who had proved loyal during earlier conflicts, notably the Anglo-Sikh Wars and the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880). Policies based on "martial races" theory emerged, favoring recruitment from Punjab and frontier provinces over Bengal and southern regions, significantly reshaping the British Indian Army's ethnic composition.

The Great Rebellion of 1857–1858

In 1857, resentment erupted into the massive Sepoy Rebellion, often called India's "first war of independence." Triggered initially by cultural insensitivity—specifically the rumored use of cow and pig fat on rifle cartridges offensive to Hindus and Muslims—the rebellion quickly escalated into a broad anti-colonial uprising.

Mutinous sepoys from Meerut marched to Delhi, declaring allegiance to the nominal Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II. Fierce fighting engulfed large areas of North India, notably in present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, as well as the city of Delhi. The British response was ruthless, employing loyal Punjabi and Pashtun troops to crush the rebellion. By mid-1858, Delhi had been recaptured, the emperor exiled to Burma, and Mughal sovereignty formally extinguished.

Transition to Direct British Rule

In the rebellion's aftermath, the British East India Company was dissolved by the Government of India Act of 1858. Direct control was assumed by the British Crown, marking the beginning of the British Raj. Queen Victoria formally pledged greater sensitivity to Indian customs and faiths, yet simultaneously reinforced British paramountcy and racial hierarchy.

The reorganization introduced significant administrative changes: the appointment of a Viceroy of India, creation of provincial and district governance structures, and incorporation of local elites into advisory roles, marking the beginning of gradual political reforms.

Realignment and Rewarding Loyalty: Punjab and the Northwest

The post-rebellion period entrenched Punjab’s prominence in the Raj. Recognizing Punjabi loyalty, the British substantially expanded irrigation and agricultural projects, transforming the province into the economic "breadbasket" of British India. Sikh and Muslim Punjabi communities increasingly became pillars of the colonial military, cementing a deep socio-political alignment with British interests.

Afghanistan: Reassertion of Neutrality

During this period, Afghanistan under Amir Dost Mohammad Khan cautiously reasserted autonomy from both British and Russian influence. Though mindful of the imperial rivalry known as the "Great Game," the Afghan ruler maintained careful neutrality, effectively securing internal stability while navigating intense geopolitical pressures along its frontiers.

Jung Bahadur Rana’s Consolidation in Nepal

In Nepal, Prime Minister Jung Bahadur Rana further solidified the hereditary Rana autocracy. In 1856, a royal decree legally cemented his family's political dominance, granting the Rana rulers unprecedented powers over the monarchy. Jung Bahadur skillfully aligned with British interests, notably assisting Britain during the Sepoy Rebellion by sending Nepalese troops to aid in suppressing rebel forces. In return, Britain restored territories in the Tarai, bolstering Nepal’s agricultural and economic base.

Bhutan’s Growing Tensions

To the east, Bhutan faced increased pressure as its southern territories (the Bengal and Assam Duars) became contested zones with British India. Tensions over control of these fertile lowlands intensified, setting the stage for future confrontations.

Socio-Cultural and Economic Shifts

The revolt underscored socio-economic grievances across the region. Urban and rural divides deepened, and religious communities grappled with shifting power dynamics. Meanwhile, increased global trade, facilitated by enhanced railways and telegraph lines established by the British, integrated Northern South Asia more closely into international markets, reshaping local economies and social relations.

Legacy of the Era

The era from 1852 to 1863 marked a significant turning point in Upper South Asia's colonial history. The brutal suppression of the rebellion firmly established direct British rule, while rewarding loyalty reshaped regional power dynamics. Crucially, this period entrenched administrative structures and economic patterns that shaped Northern South Asia’s trajectory towards modernity, nationalism, and eventual decolonization.

Racial criteria are also used in a dramatic overhaul of the British Indian Army.

The number of British soldiers is increased relative to the Indians, and Indians are excluded from artillery and technical services.

A theory of "martial races" is used to accelerate recruitment from among "loyal" Sikhs, Punjabi Muslims, Dogras, Gurkas, and Pakhtuns and to discourage enlistment of "disloyal" Bengalis and high-caste Hindus.

British policy toward the tribal peoples on the northwest frontier vacillates between caution and adventurism during the latter half of the nineteenth century.

Some viceroys oppose extending direct administration or defense beyond the Indus River.

Others favored a more assertive posture, or "forward policy."

The latter's view prevails, partly because Russian advances in Central Asia give their arguments credence.

In 1874 Sir Robert Sandeman had been sent to improve British relations with the Baloch tribes and the khan of Kalat.

In 1876 Sandeman concludes a treaty with the khan that brings his territories—including Kharan, Makran, and Las Bela—under British suzerainty.

The Second Anglo-Afghan War is fought in 1878-80, sparked by the Afghan amir's refusal to accept a British diplomatic mission to Kabal.

When British forces subsequently occupy much of Afghanistan, a treaty (Treaty of Gandamak) is concluded in May 1879, which forces Afghanistan to accept Britain's control of its foreign affairs and to cede to the British various frontier areas, including the districts of Pishin, Sibi, Harnai, and Thai Chotiali.

During succeeding years, other tribal areas are forcibly occupied by the British.

In 1883 the British lease the Bolan Pass, southeast of Quetta, from the khan of Kalat on a permanent basis, and in 1887 some areas of Balochistan are declared British territory.

Princes who were styled Raas had ruled the Gilgit region before the establishment of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir by the Dogra rulers in the mid-nineteenth century,

The rulers of the neighboring Baltistan region used the Tibetan title of rGyal-po, having been founded as a western Tibetan kingdom in the thirteenth century.

Gilgit and Baltistan, together with their neighbors Hunza, Nagar and Ladakh, had become vassals of of Jammu and Kashmir, but have maintained considerable autonomy.

In order to guard against the advance of Russia, the British Government, acting as the suzerain power of Kashmir, establishes the Gilgit Agency, overseen by a political agent of the Governor-General of British India, in 1877.

The seat of the agent is Srinagar; he is to report on Russian activities as well as on developments in the nearby states of Hunza and Nagar.

After the formation of the Gilgit Agency, these territories—including the Wazarats of Gilgit and Ladakh, the State of Hunza and Nagar, the Punial Jagir; the Governorships of Yasin, Kuh-Ghizr and Ishkoman, and Chilas—are administered directly by the British, though the Princely state of Jammu and Kashmir retains sovereignty.