The fragmentation of power in Egypt has allowed the Nubians to regain autonomy and to establish a new kingdom, Kush, centered at Napata.

The Near East (1197–910 BCE): Collapse, Realignment, and New Beginnings

Decline of Egyptian Influence

By the eleventh century BCE, the authority of Egypt's New Kingdom dynasties significantly diminishes, resulting in the fragmentation of Egypt itself and the loss of Egyptian control over Kush. Little information is available about Kush's subsequent three centuries, marking a gap in historical records.

During this period, Egypt enters the Third Intermediate Period, characterized by a fractured kingship. The pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty rule from Tanis (San al Hajar al Qibliyah), while an autonomous theocracy emerges in Thebes. Eventually, Libyan-descended rulers dominate the Twenty-second and Twenty-third dynasties, reflecting Egypt's shifting political landscape.

Rise of the Israelites and Philistines

Between 1220 and 1190 BCE, the conquest of Canaan by the Israelite tribes concludes, with tribes settling lands both west and east of the Jordan River. Around this period, the Philistines, originating from Mycenaean Greece as part of the Sea Peoples, invade coastal Canaan, establishing dominance particularly in Gaza—from which "Palestine" eventually derives its name.

Philistine settlements such as Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, and Gath reveal clear Mycenaean influences, notably in their distinctive bichrome pottery. Architectural and cultic remnants at Ekron further highlight their Aegean origins and cultural traditions.

Within a century and a half, the Philistines leverage superior iron weaponry and military organization to control southern coastal Palestine and parts of the Judaean hill country. This prompts the Israelites to seek a centralized monarchy under Saul ben Kish, the first king of Israel, around the mid-eleventh century BCE.

Cypriot Cultural Synthesis

Cyprus experiences significant cultural changes, transitioning from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age, influenced by mainland settlers and the widespread introduction of iron technology. Foundation myths documented by classical authors attribute the establishment of numerous Cypriot towns, including Salamis and Paphos, to Greek heroes following the Trojan War. Greek settlements continue to grow, with significant archaeological evidence pointing toward their increasing dominance.

Greek Expansion in Western Anatolia

The west coast of Anatolia sees a major Greek migration during this "Dark Age," resulting in settlements such as Aeolis and the foundation of notable cities including Ephesus and Priene. These settlements mark the transition from sporadic Mycenaean colonization to more extensive and permanent Greek settlement, significantly influencing regional culture and politics.

South Arabian Prosperity

Around 1000 BCE, generous rainfall in southern Arabia fosters agricultural prosperity, complemented by the lucrative trade of frankincense and myrrh. This economic wealth supports the development of city-states and small kingdoms, notably Saba (Sheba). This prosperity later leads Romans to call the region Arabia Felix ("happy Arabia").

Nubian Independence and Cultural Flourishing

Following Egypt’s decline around 1070 BCE, Nubia (Kush) reemerges as an independent kingdom centered at Napata. Nubian society thrives, adopting elements of Egyptian culture including gods such as Ammon and Isis. Kushite burial practices become distinctive, featuring burial mounds and pyramids, marking the emergence of a culturally distinct Nubian civilization.

Israelite Monarchy and Regional Realignment

The political landscape of Canaan shifts significantly after Solomon's reign. The biblical narrative describes a split in the United Monarchy into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, initiating a period marked by internal conflict, external threats, and shifting alliances. Historical evidence independent of biblical accounts remains scarce, and ongoing archaeological research continues to explore these complex developments.

Alphabetic Writing and Linguistic Evolution

During this period, the Proto-Sinaitic script evolves into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, laying foundations for future writing systems, including Phoenician. Around the tenth century BCE, archaic Biblical Hebrew emerges, as evidenced by inscriptions like the Gezer calendar, marking the beginning of Hebrew's written tradition.

Rise of Phoenician Trade and Diplomacy

Independent Phoenician cities, notably Tyre, develop robust trade networks across the Mediterranean. Tyre surpasses Sidon as the dominant Phoenician city, fostering diplomatic and commercial ties with kingdoms such as Israel. This period sees collaborative ventures, exemplified by the partnership between King Solomon of Israel and King Hiram of Tyre, who jointly develop trade routes and undertake significant building projects, including Jerusalem's First Temple.

Conclusion

Between 1197 and 910 BCE, the Near East experiences profound transformations: the fragmentation of Egyptian power, the rise of independent kingdoms, cultural synthesis in Cyprus and Anatolia, the flourishing of Nubian civilization, and significant technological and linguistic advancements. These developments profoundly shape the region’s history, setting the stage for subsequent geopolitical and cultural dynamics.

Nubian societies assume increasing importance along the Nile as farming spreads throughout Africa following the decline of Egyptian civilization after 1000.

During the New Kingdom of Egypt, Nubia (Kash) had been an Egyptian province, governed by the Viceroy of Kush.

With the disintegration of the New Kingdom around 1070 BCE, Kash has become an independent kingdom centered at Napata.

The Kushites bury their monarchs along with all their courtiers in mass graves.

Archaeologists refer to these practices as the "Pan-grave culture".

The Kushites also build burial mounds and pyramids, and share some of the same gods worshiped in Egypt, especially Ammon and Isis.

Near East (909 BCE – 819 CE) Early Iron and Antiquity — Greeks of Ionia, Levantine Tyre, Roman–Byzantine Egypt, Arabia’s Caravans

Geographic and Environmental Context

• Anchors: the Nile Valley and Delta; Sinai–Negev–Arabah; the southern Levant (with Tyre as the sole Levantine node in this subregion); Hejaz–Asir–Tihāma on the Red Sea; Yemen’s western uplands/coast; southwestern Cyprus; western Anatolian littoral (Smyrna–Ephesus–Miletus–Halicarnassus–Xanthos; Troad).

Climate & Environment

• Nile’s late antique variability; Aegean storms seasonal; Arabian aridity persistent but terraces/cisterns mitigated.

Societies & Political Developments

• Western Anatolia Greek city-states (Ionia–Aeolia–Doria, with Troad): Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna, etc.

• Tyre (sole Near-Eastern Levantine node here) dominated Phoenician seafaring.

• Egypt (Ptolemaic → Roman → Byzantine): Nile granary and Christianizing hub.

• Arabian west: caravan kingdoms and Hejaz–Asir oases; western Yemen incense terraces and caravan polities.

• Southwestern Cyprus embedded in Hellenistic–Roman maritime circuits.

Economy & Trade

• Grain–papyrus–linen from the Nile; olive–wine Aegean; incense–myrrh from Yemen; Red Sea lanes linked to Aden–Berenike nodes (outside core but connected).

• Tyre exported craft goods and purple dye.

Technology & Material Culture

• Iron agriculture and tools; triremes and merchant galleys; advanced terracing, cisterns; lighthouse/harbor works.

Belief & Symbolism

• Egyptian polytheism → Christianity (Alexandria); Greek civic cults; Tyrian traditions; Arabian deities; monasticism along Nile/Desert.

Adaptation & Resilience

• Canal maintenance buffered Nile shocks; terraces/cisterns stabilized Arabian farming; Aegean coastal redundancy protected shipping routes.

Transition

By 819 CE, the Near East was a multi-corridor world of Nile granaries, Ionia’s city-coasts, Tyre’s Phoenician legacy, and Arabian incense roads — a foundation for the medieval dynamics ahead (Ayyubids in Syria/Egypt next door, Abbasids beyond, and the Ionian–Anatolian littoral under Byzantine/Nicaean arcs).

Near East (909–766 BCE): Consolidation, Conflict, and Cultural Flourishing

Nubian Expansion and Egyptian Shifts

During the late ninth and early eighth centuries BCE, Egypt experiences significant geopolitical transformations. Kashta, a Kushite king based in Napata, expands his influence northward into Upper Egypt, notably installing his daughter Amenirdis I as the prospective God's Wife of Amun in Thebes. This effectively legitimizes Nubian dominance, paving the way for his son Piye to consolidate Kushite power across Egypt around 747 BCE. Under Piye's rule, Egyptian cultural and religious traditions experience revitalization, with an increasing adoption of Nubian elements.

Israel, Judah, and Regional Rivalries

This period sees Israel and Judah embroiled in frequent conflicts, both internally and with neighboring states. Notably, the Mesha Stele, or Moabite Stone, crafted by King Mesha of Moab around 850 BCE, provides critical historical insights. This stele details Mesha’s rebellion against Israelite domination under the "House of Omri," referencing the Israelite god Yahweh and potentially the earliest extrabiblical mention of the "House of David." The kingdoms of Edom and Moab also rise prominently, intensifying regional dynamics, with Edom gaining significance through increased trade and mining activities.

Israel under Omri (c. 876–869 BCE) and his son Ahab (c. 869–850 BCE) emerges as a significant regional power, marked by extensive military campaigns, construction projects, and an influential Phoenician alliance forged through Ahab’s marriage to Jezebel, daughter of Ithbaal of Tyre and Sidon. The internal religious turmoil intensifies with the clash between Phoenician Baal worship and Hebrew monotheism, particularly under the prophets Elijah and Elisha.

Assyrian Dominance and Local Autonomy

The Assyrian Empire, under rulers such as Shalmaneser III and later Tiglath-Pileser III, exerts considerable influence over the Near East, frequently subduing and extracting tribute from kingdoms such as Israel and the city-states of Phoenicia. Despite periodic revolts by city-states like Tyre and regional leaders, Assyria largely maintains its dominance through military might and political coercion, reshaping the political landscape significantly.

Sabaean Ascendancy and Arabian Trade

To the south, the Sabaean Kingdom in southern Arabia (biblical Sheba), beginning around the tenth century BCE, becomes a vital trade nexus connecting Arabia, Syria, and Mesopotamia. Controlling major caravan routes and flourishing economically, the Sabaeans significantly influence commerce and cultural exchanges across the Near East.

Greek Expansion in Anatolia and Cyprus

The collapse of Mycenaean civilization and the subsequent Dorian invasion in mainland Greece prompt waves of Ionian and Dorian refugees to establish new settlements in Asia Minor. The Ionian coast flourishes culturally and commercially with prominent cities such as Phocaea, Ephesus, and Miletus. Concurrently, the Dorians establish influential cities like Halicarnassus and Knidos, integrating into regional power dynamics through leagues like the Dorian Hexapolis. Cyprus also emerges as a significant cultural and commercial hub, with a Phoenician colony established at Citium around 800 BCE, contributing to the island's complex demographic and cultural landscape.

Cultural and Linguistic Developments

The Hebrew alphabet, evolving from Phoenician script, is reflected in early texts like the Gezer Calendar (tenth century BCE), demonstrating early literacy and agricultural traditions among the Israelites. Concurrently, the Elohist (E) textual source emerges, emphasizing Israel's northern kingdom perspectives, portraying a less anthropomorphic deity, Elohim, and competing religious practices.

Legacy of the Age

This age marks a profound consolidation and conflict across the Near East, with regional powers negotiating their positions amidst shifting alliances and rivalries. The cultural and political developments—ranging from Nubian expansion in Egypt, Hebrew religious struggles, Assyrian dominance, Greek colonization in Anatolia, to burgeoning Arabian trade—lay essential foundations for the complex historical trajectories that continue to shape the region's future.

Asa, according to the Bible, inaugurates religious reforms, such as banning male cult prostitutes and the worship of the Canaanite goddess Asherah, consort of El, that had been sponsored by his mother, Maachah, the queen regent.

After a period of intermittent warfare between Judah and Israel, Judah enters into an alliance with the growing kingdom of Aram Damascus, by which the latter attacks northern Israel, thus relieving pressure on Judah.

Asa of Judah, taking advantage of thirty-five years of peace, has revamped and reinforced the fortresses originally built by his grandfather Rehoboam.

An invasion by the Egyptian-backed chieftain Zerah the Ethiopian (who, given the time frame with Asa's reign, may either be Pharaoh Osorkon II or Osorkon I) and his million men and three hundred chariots is defeated by Asa's five hundred and eighty thousand men (these figures come from 2 Chronicles) in the Valley of Zephath, near Mareshah (2 Chronicles 14:9-15).

The Bible does not state whether Zerah was a pharaoh or a general of the army.

The Ethiopians were pursued all the way to Gerar, in the coastal plain, where they stopped out of sheer exhaustion.

The resulting peace will keep Judah free from Egyptian incursions until the time of Josiah, some centuries later.

In Asa's 36th year, King Baasha of Israel attacks the Kingdom of Judah (2 Chronicles 16:1; the Seder Olam and some later commentators take this as the thirty-sixth year since the division of the kingdom, not the thirty-sixth year of Asa's reign).

Baasha builds the fortress of Ramah on the border, less than ten miles from Jerusalem.

The result is that the capital is under pressure and the military situation is precarious.

Asa takes gold and silver from the Temple and sends them to Ben-Hadad I, king of Aram Damascus, in exchange for the Damascene king canceling his peace treaty with Baasha.

Ben-Hadad I attacks Ijon, Dan, and many important cities of the tribe of Naphtali, and Baasha is forced to withdraw from Ramah.

Asa tears down the unfinished fortress and uses its raw materials to fortify Geba and Mizpah, on his side of the border (2 Chronicles 16:1-7).

Near East (765–622 BCE): Rise, Reform, and Regional Shifts

Egypt and the Nubian Dynasty

During this era, Egypt is characterized by the rule of both native Egyptians and foreign Nubian kings, notably from the Twenty-fourth and Twenty-fifth Dynasties. Nubian influence peaks with the reign of Kashta (ca. 750–740 BCE), who takes control of Upper Egypt and Thebes, laying the groundwork for the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. His successor, Piye, successfully reunifies Egypt, extending Nubian dominance from Nubia to the Nile Delta.

The Nubian dynasty, ardent worshippers of Amun, views Egyptian traditions reverently, revitalizing temples and religious practices. However, their expansion into Syria-Palestine provokes conflict with Assyria. The Assyrian king Esarhaddon ultimately invades Egypt in 671 BCE, displacing the Nubian rulers and reinstating local rulers at Sais. The Nubians retreat to Napata, from where they continue to govern Kush.

Judah: Religious Revival and Reformation

Following Israel’s collapse to Assyria in 722 BCE, the Kingdom of Judah emerges as the sole representative of Hebrew sovereignty, preserving its independence as an Assyrian vassal state. Judah experiences considerable prosperity and religious shifts under kings like Uzziah and Hezekiah. However, true transformation comes under King Josiah (641–609 BCE), whose reforms dramatically reshape Judah’s religious identity.

Josiah's campaign, beginning around 626 BCE, is bolstered by the discovery of an early form of Deuteronomy in 622 BCE. Josiah centralizes worship in Jerusalem, eliminating pagan altars and foreign deities, including the cult of Asherah, and renews the covenant between Yahweh and the nation. This religious reform, supported by prophets such as Zephaniah, lays foundational elements of monotheistic Judaism, profoundly influencing Judah’s future cultural and spiritual trajectory.

Assyrian Dominance and Decline

The powerful Assyrian Empire dominates much of the Near East through military conquest and political pressure, successfully subduing kingdoms like Israel and city-states across Phoenicia and Philistia. Yet, after the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BCE, Assyria’s power wanes rapidly, plunging the region into uncertainty and allowing former vassal states like Judah to assert greater autonomy.

Philistia, Phoenicia, and Regional Instability

Philistine and Phoenician cities, including Tyre and Ashkelon, become Assyrian vassals but repeatedly rebel against their overlords. These revolts are brutally suppressed, notably by Sargon II and Sennacherib, leaving these coastal kingdoms weakened yet culturally resilient. By the late seventh century BCE, Egypt under Psamtik I exerts significant influence over Philistia, notably besieging Ashdod and making it a vassal state.

Emergence of Greek Influence: Ionia and Cyprus

Greek settlement intensifies in the coastal regions of Asia Minor and the island of Cyprus, where Ionian cities such as Miletus and Ephesus and Cypriot kingdoms flourish culturally and commercially. Assyrian dominance briefly extends over Cyprus around 708 BCE, but local autonomy largely persists, allowing continued Greek cultural and economic prosperity.

Edom, Moab, and the Kingdom of Kush

In Edom, settlement and economic activity intensify in the late eighth century BCE, as indicated by archaeological records. Moab, linguistically and culturally close to Judah, nonetheless becomes an Assyrian tributary state. Meanwhile, the Nubian Kingdom of Kush, having retreated from Egypt, maintains an influential presence, ruling from Napata and then moving its capital to Meroe, strategically situated along vital trade routes.

Legacy of the Age

The period from 765 to 622 BCE is a transformative era marked by significant political shifts, religious reforms, and regional reconfigurations. Judah’s move toward religious centralization under Josiah shapes the future of Hebrew religious identity, laying critical groundwork for monotheistic Judaism. Simultaneously, the weakening of Assyria creates a power vacuum filled by emergent regional powers such as Egypt, Lydia, and the reassertion of local autonomy throughout the Near East. These transformations set the stage for profound historical developments in subsequent centuries.

Kush reemerges as an independent kingdom ruled from Napata by an aggressive line of monarchs who gradually extend their influence into Egypt.

A Kushite king called Kashta conquers Upper Egypt in about 750 BCE and becomes ruler of Thebes until approximately 740 BCE.

His successor, Piye, subdues the delta, reunites Egypt under the Twenty-fifth dynasty, and founds a line of kings who rule Kush and Thebes for about a hundred years.

The dynasty's intervention in the area of modern Syria causes a confrontation between Egypt and Assyria.

When the Assyrians in retaliation invade Egypt, Taharqa (688-663 BCE), the last Kushite pharaoh, withdraws and returns the dynasty to Napata, where it continues to rule Kush and extends its dominions to the south and east.

The Nubian kingdom of Cush, or Kush, overruns the now-weakened Egypt in the late eighth century BCE and establishes a capital at Napata, inaugurating the Twenty-fifth Dynasty.

Near East (753–742 BCE): Kushite Expansion and Prophetic Voices

Kushite Ascendancy in Upper Egypt

From his power base at Napata, approximately four hundred kilometers north of modern-day Khartoum in Sudan, Kashta, King of Kush, significantly expands his influence into Upper Egypt. Around this time, he successfully installs his daughter, Amenirdis I, as the presumptive successor to Shepenupet I, the serving Divine Adoratrice of Amun in Thebes and daughter of Egypt's Osorkon III. This strategic move legitimizes Kushite control over the Thebaid region and marks the initial phase of what some historians recognize as the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty of Egypt. Under Kashta's reign, the native Kushite population situated between the third and fourth Cataracts of the Nile undergoes rapid "Egyptianization," adopting Egyptian cultural practices, religion, and administrative structures. Kashta’s reign concludes around 752 BCE (or 747 BCE), when he is succeeded by his son, Piye.

Literature and Cultural Reflection: The Book of Ruth

During this period, the narrative known as the Book of Ruth emerges, traditionally attributed to the prophet Samuel but likely authored or redacted later. It details the life of Ruth, a Moabite widow who marries Boaz, an older kinsman from Bethlehem, through the assistance of her mother-in-law Naomi. This poignant story emphasizes themes of family loyalty, legal customs such as levirate marriage, and the subtle workings of divine providence in everyday life. Its enduring significance lies in Ruth’s role as an ancestor of King David, thereby anchoring the narrative in the larger historical and theological fabric of the Hebrew scriptures.

The Prophetic Voice of Amos

Around this same era, the prophet Amos, originating from Tekoa in Judah, rises to prominence. Writing in a time of relative prosperity, Amos directs his sharp critique toward the northern kingdom of Israel. He vehemently condemns the stark disparity between the lavish lifestyles of Israel’s elite and their oppression of the poor. His prophetic oracles, characterized by warnings of impending darkness, famine, and destruction, urge urgent social justice reforms and forecast severe divine judgment if his warnings are ignored.

Isaiah's Emergence and Influence

Beginning approximately in 747 BCE, the prophet Isaiah, possibly of noble lineage, begins his influential ministry in Jerusalem. His early messages (later compiled as chapters 1–35 in the Book of Isaiah, known collectively as First Isaiah) address critical internal political and economic policies. Isaiah's tenure will span multiple decades, profoundly shaping Judah's theological and political landscape. Modern scholarship generally agrees that the entirety of the Book of Isaiah comprises contributions from multiple authors and disciples over a prolonged period, though the initial chapters remain closely tied to Isaiah himself or his immediate circle.

Legacy of the Era

The era from 753 to 742 BCE marks a significant cultural, political, and religious transition in the Near East. Kushite influence in Egypt reshapes the political landscape of the region, while the prophetic voices of Amos and Isaiah redefine the spiritual and moral parameters within the Hebrew kingdoms. Meanwhile, the Book of Ruth provides enduring literary and cultural narratives that continue to influence ethical and religious thought. Collectively, these developments illustrate the vibrant intersections between political authority, religious expression, and social justice during a formative period in Near Eastern history.