East Asia (2637 – 910 BCE): Rivers, Metals, and the Rise of States

Regional Overview

During the Bronze and Early Iron Ages, East Asia emerged as one of the world’s great civilizational heartlands.
From the Yellow and Yangtze valleys of China to the Korean Peninsula, Japan, Taiwan, and the highlands and steppe corridors of western China and Mongolia, societies transformed irrigation, metallurgy, and writing into the instruments of state power.
This was an age of hydraulic empires, bronze workshops, and expanding frontiers, when settled farmers, mobile herders, and maritime voyagers together forged the cultural matrix that would define East Asia’s classical eras.

---

Geography and Environment

East Asia’s vast domain encompassed temperate plains, subtropical coasts, and alpine plateaus.
The Yellow River carved loess terraces ideal for millet and wheat, while the Yangtze Delta offered lush paddies for rice.
To the north and west lay the steppe and desert margins—Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Gansu—where grasslands merged into arid basins and mountain ranges.
Along the Pacific rim, the Korean and Japanese archipelagos formed the maritime frontier, linked to the mainland by currents and trade.
These diverse settings sustained a continuum from intensive wet-rice agriculture to high-pasture nomadism.

---

Climate and Environmental Shifts

Holocene stability continued, though alternating floods, droughts, and cool spells along the Yellow River spurred engineering and migration.
Monsoon rains sustained southern rice fields, while drier cycles reshaped steppe pastures.
Environmental mastery—levees, canals, and paddy works—became the defining measure of political capacity.

---

Societies and Political Developments

By the mid-third millennium BCE, the Longshan culture of northern China had introduced walled towns and social hierarchy, evolving into the Erlitou state (often equated with the semi-legendary Xia).
The Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) institutionalized bronze ritual, written records, and urban administration; its successor, the early Zhou, extended feudal rule across the plains.
In the south, Liangzhu and its heirs built water-managed jade-working centers.
Across the steppe rim, pastoral chiefdoms traded horses and metalwork with the settled zones, while in Korea, the Mumun culture advanced agriculture and monumental dolmen building.
The Jōmon peoples of Japan refined a maritime-forest economy, their cord-marked ceramics among the world’s oldest continuous traditions.

---

Economy and Technology

Agriculture anchored all development: millet and wheat in the north, rice in the south, supplemented by legumes, fruit trees, and silk production.
Bronze metallurgy reached unprecedented artistry under the Shang, producing ornate vessels, chariot fittings, and weapons.
Iron smelting appeared toward the close of this era, transforming farming and warfare.
Riverine and coastal transport expanded trade in jade, salt, ceramics, and textiles; the Yangtze Delta became a maritime hub connecting inland producers with Korea, Japan, and Taiwan.
In the west, the Hexi Corridor and Tarim oases formed early nodes of the Silk Road, moving jade eastward and horses west.

---

Belief, Writing, and Art

Shang oracle-bone inscriptions inaugurated Chinese writing, binding religion and administration.
Bronze vessels embodied a theology of ancestor worship and royal mediation between Heaven and Earth.
In the south, jade rituals expressed a cosmology of water and fertility; in the steppe, stone stelae and kurgan rings honored sky gods and heroic ancestors.
Across Korea and Japan, dolmens, shell mounds, and figurines encoded lineage and territorial identity.
Art and ritual thus formed a shared grammar of power from the Pacific to the Altai.

---

Movement and Interaction Corridors

East Asia’s civilizations grew through constant motion.
Caravan and river routes carried goods from the Tarim Basin to the Yellow Plain; maritime passages through the Bohai, East China, and Japan Seas linked coastal polities and disseminated crops, metals, and ideas.
These overlapping land and sea networks prefigured the trans-Eurasian and trans-Pacific exchange systems of later antiquity.

---

Environmental Adaptation and Resilience

Flood-control levees, paddy irrigation, and terrace farming stabilized yields in volatile climates.
Nomadic mobility balanced the steppe’s shifting pastures, while coastal fishers diversified protein sources and trade goods.
In every zone, societies developed adaptive mosaics of agriculture, herding, and craft that cushioned environmental stress and underpinned political endurance.

---

Regional Synthesis and Long-Term Significance

By 910 BCE, East Asia was a continent of interconnected yet distinctive worlds:

• In China, bronze states and written administration redefined governance.

• In Korea and Japan, agrarian and megalithic cultures matured along maritime arteries.

• In the western highlands and steppe, mobile herders linked China to Central Asia’s metallurgical frontier.

Together these traditions laid the foundations of the classical Chinese, Korean, and Japanese civilizations, and established East Asia’s lasting role as a pivot between the land empires of Eurasia and the oceanic cultures of the Pacific.

Although Shimao, an inland jade–fortress polity, belongs to the interior political world of Upper East Asia, its extraordinary jade corpus underscores how far the Longshan prestige network radiated—reaching not only the Shandong coast and lower Yellow River corridor, but also the northern loess terraces. As Maritime East Asian societies developed coastal jade workshops, salt–fish economies, and early seafaring routes toward Taiwan, the inland Longshan frontier was simultaneously producing monumental centers like Shimao. Together they represent two complementary arms of a broader Late Neolithic transformation: one coastal and maritime, one interior and fortified.

Maritime East Asia (2637 – 910 BCE): River Valleys, Coastal Plains, and Early States

Geographic and Environmental Context

Martitime East Asia—including eastern China, Taiwan, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan—was anchored by fertile river basins such as the Yellow River and Yangtze River, alongside extensive coastal plains and sheltered inland seas. The Bohai Gulf, East China Sea, and Sea of Japan created maritime corridors, while inland mountain ranges like the Qinling and Taebaek defined cultural and ecological boundaries. The climate ranged from temperate in the north to subtropical in the south, fostering diverse agricultural systems.

Agriculture and Early Civilizations

By the mid–third millennium BCE, the north’s Yellow River basin supported millet and wheat farming, while the Yangtze basin cultivated rice in sophisticated paddy systems. These agricultural foundations sustained some of East Asia’s earliest complex societies.

• In the Yellow River region, the late Longshan culture (c. 3000–1900 BCE) developed rammed-earth walled towns, elaborate pottery, and social stratification, laying the groundwork for the emergence of the Erlitou cultur e(c. 1900–1500 BCE), often identified with the semi-legendary Xia dynasty.

• The Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) established one of the first fully documented states in East Asia, with urban centers, palatial compounds, and control over large territories through networks of allied and subordinate polities.

• In the Yangtze basin, complex cultures such as Liangzhu (before c. 2300 BCE) and its successors specialized in jade production, hydrological engineering, and ceremonial centers.

Technological and Cultural Developments

Bronze metallurgy flourished under the Shang, producing ritual vessels, weapons, and chariot fittings of extraordinary skill. Oracle bone script emerged as the earliest known form of Chinese writing, used for divination and state record-keeping. Jade carving traditions—especially in Liangzhu-descended communities—produced bi disks and cong tubes, objects central to ritual and elite identity.
In Korea, the Mumun period (c. 1500–300 BCE) introduced intensive agriculture, large-scale dolmens, and bronze weaponry. In Japan, the Jōmon culture maintained a hunter-fisher-gatherer economy with some plant cultivation, producing highly distinctive cord-marked pottery and shell middens that attest to rich coastal subsistence.

Maritime Networks and Exchange

Coastal and riverine transport tied together communities across Lower East Asia. The Yangtze Deltaacted as a hub for trade in jade, ceramics, and textiles, while the Shandong Peninsula facilitated contact between northern China and the Korean Peninsula. Early seafaring along the East China Sea connected mainland cultures with Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands, moving nephrite jade, shell ornaments, and possibly agricultural crops.

Cultural and Symbolic Expressions

In the north, Shang ritual life centered on ancestor worship, with elaborate bronze vessels used in feasts and sacrifices. In the south, water-focused cosmologies and earth–sky symbolism infused jade artistry and ceremonial landscapes. Across Korea and Japan, monumental burial sites—dolmens in Korea, shell mounds in Japan—served as both funerary monuments and markers of social memory.

Environmental Adaptation and Resilience

Communities engineered river levees, paddy fields, and irrigation channels to manage seasonal flooding and droughts. Coastal fishing villages diversified diets with shellfish, seaweed, and marine fish, buffering agricultural shortfalls. In Korea and Japan, seasonal resource scheduling allowed balanced exploitation of marine and terrestrial environments.

Transition to the Early First Millennium BCE

By 910 BCE, Martitime East Asia was a region of dynamic cultural interaction and technological sophistication. In China, the Shang state’s political, economic, and ritual systems set precedents for later dynasties, while in Korea and Japan, evolving agricultural and maritime traditions created the foundations for complex societies that would integrate more fully into continental networks in the centuries ahead.

Maritime East Asia (2637 – 910 BCE): River Valleys, Coastal Plains, and Early States

Geographic and Environmental Context

Martitime East Asia—including eastern China, Taiwan, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan—was anchored by fertile river basins such as the Yellow River and Yangtze River, alongside extensive coastal plains and sheltered inland seas. The Bohai Gulf, East China Sea, and Sea of Japan created maritime corridors, while inland mountain ranges like the Qinling and Taebaek defined cultural and ecological boundaries. The climate ranged from temperate in the north to subtropical in the south, fostering diverse agricultural systems.

Agriculture and Early Civilizations

By the mid–third millennium BCE, the north’s Yellow River basin supported millet and wheat farming, while the Yangtze basin cultivated rice in sophisticated paddy systems. These agricultural foundations sustained some of East Asia’s earliest complex societies.

• In the Yellow River region, the late Longshan culture (c. 3000–1900 BCE) developed rammed-earth walled towns, elaborate pottery, and social stratification, laying the groundwork for the emergence of the Erlitou cultur e(c. 1900–1500 BCE), often identified with the semi-legendary Xia dynasty.

• The Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) established one of the first fully documented states in East Asia, with urban centers, palatial compounds, and control over large territories through networks of allied and subordinate polities.

• In the Yangtze basin, complex cultures such as Liangzhu (before c. 2300 BCE) and its successors specialized in jade production, hydrological engineering, and ceremonial centers.

Technological and Cultural Developments

Bronze metallurgy flourished under the Shang, producing ritual vessels, weapons, and chariot fittings of extraordinary skill. Oracle bone script emerged as the earliest known form of Chinese writing, used for divination and state record-keeping. Jade carving traditions—especially in Liangzhu-descended communities—produced bi disks and cong tubes, objects central to ritual and elite identity.
In Korea, the Mumun period (c. 1500–300 BCE) introduced intensive agriculture, large-scale dolmens, and bronze weaponry. In Japan, the Jōmon culture maintained a hunter-fisher-gatherer economy with some plant cultivation, producing highly distinctive cord-marked pottery and shell middens that attest to rich coastal subsistence.

Maritime Networks and Exchange

Coastal and riverine transport tied together communities across Lower East Asia. The Yangtze Deltaacted as a hub for trade in jade, ceramics, and textiles, while the Shandong Peninsula facilitated contact between northern China and the Korean Peninsula. Early seafaring along the East China Sea connected mainland cultures with Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands, moving nephrite jade, shell ornaments, and possibly agricultural crops.

Cultural and Symbolic Expressions

In the north, Shang ritual life centered on ancestor worship, with elaborate bronze vessels used in feasts and sacrifices. In the south, water-focused cosmologies and earth–sky symbolism infused jade artistry and ceremonial landscapes. Across Korea and Japan, monumental burial sites—dolmens in Korea, shell mounds in Japan—served as both funerary monuments and markers of social memory.

Environmental Adaptation and Resilience

Communities engineered river levees, paddy fields, and irrigation channels to manage seasonal flooding and droughts. Coastal fishing villages diversified diets with shellfish, seaweed, and marine fish, buffering agricultural shortfalls. In Korea and Japan, seasonal resource scheduling allowed balanced exploitation of marine and terrestrial environments.

Transition to the Early First Millennium BCE

By 910 BCE, Martitime East Asia was a region of dynamic cultural interaction and technological sophistication. In China, the Shang state’s political, economic, and ritual systems set precedents for later dynasties, while in Korea and Japan, evolving agricultural and maritime traditions created the foundations for complex societies that would integrate more fully into continental networks in the centuries ahead.

Shimao (石峁): An Upper East Asian Citadel of the Late Neolithic

Rising above the northern edge of the Loess Plateau in today’s Shenmu County, Shaanxi, Shimao was the largest fortified settlement of the Late Neolithic in northern China, active roughly 2300–1800 BCE. At its height, Shimao extended over 400 hectares, dwarfing its contemporaries and anchoring a frontier zone between the agrarian heartlands to the south and the pastoral–foraging cultures of the Ordos and northern steppes. Built of massive stone walls—unusual in Neolithic China—the city’s terraced fortifications, palatial platform, and gates lined with human sacrifices reveal an emerging political order shaped by competition, display, and the orchestration of labor at unprecedented scales.

Shimao’s most remarkable signatures are its jade-rich assemblages and hybrid symbolic program. Jade plaques, blades, scepters, animal ornaments, and inlaid wall mosaics echo Longshan jade traditions yet appear in far greater volume and more northerly style. Thin-walled black pottery and carved motifs show a selective adoption of material traits from the Longshan cultural sphere, which extended through Shandong and northern Henan. At the same time, Shimao’s iconography—especially its stone-carved masks, stepped terraces, and animal–spirit imagery—draws from older northern traditions of the Ordos and steppe worlds. This cultural hybridity positions Shimao as a frontier capital, mediating between millet-farming societies to the south and mobile pastoralists to the north.

Recent findings reveal extensive craft specialization—workshops for jade, stone, bone, and horn, along with evidence of textile production—and an elite compound separated by inner walls. The scale of construction, repeated remodeling, and rich ritual deposits suggest a powerful ruling lineage at Shimao that commanded long-distance trade in jade and other prestige goods. Climate shifts around 2000 BCE, along with emerging Bronze Age powers to the south, likely contributed to its decline, but the site’s influence endured in the cultural memory and political formations of the early northern states.

Wheel-turned, highly polished black pottery, commonly used for ritual purposes and funerary ware, had replaced the Yangshao type at the end of China’s Neolithic period.

The prosperous Longshan culture, centered on the central and lower Yellow River, is notable for its highly polished black pottery (or egg-shell pottery); its thin walls and metallic, burnished finish marking a great technical advance.

Named after Longshan, Shandong Province, the first excavated site and dated from about 3000 BCE to 2000 BCE, the culture’s distinctive feature is the high level of skill in pottery making, including the use of pottery wheels.

The four centuries from 3000 BCE to 2600 BCE are considered the early period of the Longshan culture.

The Longshan type of thin-walled and polished black pottery will also be discovered in the Yangzi River valley and as far as the southeastern coast of China proper, a clear indication that Neolithic agricultural sub-groups of the greater Longshan Culture will eventually spread out across China proper.

Life during the Longshan culture marks a transition to the establishment of cities, as rammed earth walls and moats begin to appear; the site at Taosi is the largest walled Longshan settlement.

Maritime East Asia (2493–2350 BCE): Late Longshan Expansion and Early Urbanization

Between 2493 BCE and 2350 BCE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—continues to witness significant social and cultural developments, especially during the Late Longshan period in China. This era is characterized by increased geographic diversification, the expansion of agricultural practices, early urban settlement formation, and regional interactions that lay critical foundations for the evolution of more complex societies in subsequent periods.

---

Regional Expansion of Late Longshan Culture

During this era, the Longshan civilization expands notably into a wide variety of geographic regions across China, encompassing numerous distinctive sub-periods. One such prominent regional variant is the Shaanxi Longshan, flourishing notably along the middle reaches of the Jing River and Wei River valleys. This region later gains historical prominence through its strategic location near routes such as the emerging North Silk Road, underscoring the long-term significance of early settlement patterns established during this era.

These diverse regional manifestations of Longshan culture demonstrate increased cultural complexity and indicate extensive intra-regional interactions, setting an enduring pattern for subsequent Chinese historical developments.

---

Rise of Urbanization and Fortified Settlements

The Late Longshan period marks a decisive shift towards urbanization and increased social complexity. Permanent settlements begin exhibiting characteristics of early cities, including substantial defensive structures such as rammed-earth walls and moats. Notably, the archaeological site of Taosi (in modern-day Shanxi Province) emerges as the largest walled settlement of this period, reflecting growing population density, specialized labor, and social stratification.

---

Expansion and Consolidation of Rice Cultivation

Agricultural practices, particularly rice cultivation, become firmly established and expand widely across the Yangzi River basin and beyond, securing the foundation for sustainable population growth and stable economic systems. The enhanced agricultural productivity supports growing populations, facilitating further social complexity and specialization of labor, critical for urban growth and technological innovation in subsequent periods.

---

Legacy of the Era: Foundations for Complexity

Thus, between 2493 BCE and 2350 BCE, Maritime East Asia experiences critical developments characterized by increased regional diversification within the Longshan cultural framework, expansion of fortified urban settlements such as Taosi, and widespread agricultural consolidation. These transformative processes lay essential foundations for the subsequent emergence of more sophisticated social structures, advanced agricultural economies, and urban civilizations that define later historical trajectories in Lower East Asia.

The cultures that are to dominate this epoch lay the foundations of their success through the nexus of government, military, infrastructure, and commerce.

Notable examples include the Longshan civilization in China, the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley, the city-states of Sumer, the commercial ports of the Canaanites, the Old Kingdom of Egypt, the Crete-based Minoan civilization of the Aegean, and the Norte Chico civilization in Peru.

A variety of geographic regions of China are involved among the various sub-periods of the Longshan civilization, particularly for the Late Longshan period.

For example, the middle reaches of the Jing River and Wei River evince settlement known as the Shaanxi Longshan.

The We'i River valley will participate in key historic events in China as the North Silk Road develops in this same area.

Life during the Longshan culture marks a transition to the establishment of cities, as rammed earth walls and moats began to appear; the site at Taosi is the largest walled Longshan settlement, by which time rice cultivation is clearly established.

Maritime East Asia (2349–2206 BCE): Legendary Flood, Sage-Kings, and the Foundation of Gojoseon

Between 2349 BCE and 2206 BCE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—enters an era dominated by legendary events and seminal myths that profoundly influence later historical and cultural identities. This period prominently features China’s foundational legends of the Great Flood, the virtuous reigns of the mythical sage-kings Yao and Shun, the rise of Yu the Great, early jade culture, and the mythical establishment of the Korean kingdom of Gojoseon.

---

The Legendary Great Flood of China

A pivotal event of this era is the legendary Great Flood of China, traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE during the reign of Emperor Yao. According to Confucian historical texts, notably the Classic of History (Shu Jing)and the writings of the historian Sima Qian, the flood devastates extensive areas, inundating both the Yellow (Huang He) and Yangtze (Chang Jiang) river valleys. Catastrophic flooding, accompanied by severe storms and widespread famine, continues unabated for years, causing massive population displacement and social turmoil.

Initially, a figure named Kun attempts to control the floodwaters by constructing dams and barriers. However, Kun’s efforts fail disastrously, leading Emperor Yao to execute him for incompetence. Kun’s son, Yu—later revered as Yu the Great—adopts innovative, natural methods by creating extensive drainage channels that successfully redirect floodwaters into the sea, ultimately stabilizing the environment and restoring productivity.

---

Reigns of Legendary Sage-Emperors Yao and Shun

Emperor Yao, traditionally reigning from approximately 2356 BCE to 2255 BCE, is venerated in later Confucian literature as the ideal sage-king, embodying benevolence, moral perfection, and civic virtue. Yao’s reign becomes a model for subsequent Chinese rulers, exemplifying enlightened governance. Among Yao's attributed accomplishments is the legendary invention of the strategic board game Weiqi (Go), reportedly developed to positively influence his unruly son, Danzhu.

In Confucian tradition, Yao, recognizing the unworthiness of his son Danzhu, instead chooses the morally exemplary Shun as his successor. Shun’s ascent to rulership is justified by his exceptional virtue and exemplary filial piety, despite personal adversity and familial mistreatment. Yao cements this selection by marrying his two daughters to Shun. After Yao’s death—at age 119 according to tradition—Shun formally becomes emperor following a customary three-year mourning period.

Alternative accounts, notably those presented in the Bamboo Annals, offer differing narratives, claiming Shun rebels against Yao, imprisoning him and causing his death, exiling Danzhu, and consolidating power by force. Nonetheless, mainstream Confucian historiography maintains Shun as the virtuous and rightful heir.

As emperor, Shun (reigning from 2255 BCE) emphasizes governance based on merit rather than hereditary privilege, becoming another revered model of ethical rulership in Chinese culture. Eventually, Shun designates Yu the Great—the celebrated flood-tamer—as his successor, further solidifying the principle of meritocracy. Yu’s accession will lay foundations for the establishment of China’s earliest dynasty (Xia Dynasty) after 2070 BCE.

Early Chinese often speak of Yao, Shun, and Yu as historical figures, though contemporary historians generally interpret them as symbolic leader-chiefs representing transitional governance from tribal alliances to structured societies with hierarchical, patriarchal systems.

---

Foundation Myth of Gojoseon (2333 BCE)

Meanwhile, on the Korean Peninsula, traditional legend holds that Dangun Wanggeom establishes the first Korean kingdom, Gojoseon (Choson), in 2333 BCE. This foundational myth, recorded centuries later in Korean historical texts such as the Samguk Yusa (13th century) and Jewang Ungi, associates Dangun’s ascension closely with the reign of China’s Emperor Yao. Historical sources offer varying specific dates: Samguk Yusa places Dangun’s rule beginning in the fiftieth year of Yao’s reign, while Sejong Sillok and Dongguk Tonggam suggest alternative timing. Some historians even argue for a much earlier foundation around 3000 BCE.

Gojoseon’s establishment myth profoundly shapes Korean cultural identity, linking Korean origins symbolically to broader regional historical narratives and enhancing a shared cultural heritage in Lower East Asia.

---

Early Jade Culture and Regional Artistry

Concurrently, jade carving traditions continue to flourish across China, reflecting significant cultural and artistic continuity from earlier Neolithic periods. Jade remains culturally prominent, with primary ancient nephrite jade sources, such as those in the Ningshao region (Yangtze River Delta, Liangzhu Culture, ca. 3400–2250 BCE) and Liaoning Province (Hongshan Culture, ca. 4700–2900 BCE), influencing regional artisanal styles. During this era, jade artifacts typically exhibit simplicity, with minimal ornamentation reflecting early artistic styles and spiritual symbolism deeply ingrained in regional cultural practices.

---

Legacy of the Era: Legends Shaping Cultural Identity

Thus, the period 2349–2206 BCE profoundly shapes Maritime East Asia’s early historical narrative, blending legendary sagas, foundational myths, and cultural symbolism. China's Great Flood legend, combined with accounts of virtuous sage-emperors Yao and Shun, embeds enduring moral and social principles that define subsequent Chinese political philosophy. Korea’s Gojoseon legend establishes a foundational cultural identity that resonates deeply in Korean history, while regional jade craftsmanship preserves early cultural continuity across East Asia.

Collectively, these legendary narratives, myths, and artistic practices serve as powerful cultural and historical symbols, profoundly influencing subsequent historical interpretations and cultural identities in Lower East Asia throughout subsequent eras.