Mediterranean Southwest Europe (477–334 BCE): Iberian Artistry and Regional Power Shifts

The age 477–334 BCE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is defined by artistic cultural achievements in Iberia, evolving political and territorial dynamics in Italy, Sicily, and conflicts involving emerging powers like Rome and Carthage.

Iberian Culture and Art

The Iberian Peninsula witnesses significant cultural and artistic achievements, especially from the ancient Iberian people known as the Bastetani or Bastuli. Their territory spans present-day Almería, Granada, Albacete, eastern Málaga, southeastern Jaén in Andalusia, and western Murcia. Prominent towns include Baria (present-day Villaricos), Bailo (Cádiz), Abdera, Sexi, Malaca, and Carteia. Notably, Iberian sculpture reaches a high point with the creation of iconic works such as the Lady of Baza (la Dama de Baza), a limestone female figure displaying traces of painted stucco decoration discovered in 1971 near Granada.

Another significant Iberian sculpture is the famous Lady of Elche, a Phoenician-influenced, polychrome stone bust depicting a regal woman from around the fourth century BCE. This sculpture, believed to have associations with the Carthaginian goddess Tanit, demonstrates a blend of Iberian craftsmanship and Hellenistic artistic influences. Its construction, featuring an aperture at the rear, suggests it likely functioned as a funerary urn.

Etruscan and Roman Transformations

Throughout this period, the power of the Etruscans steadily declines, challenged by incursions from both Rome and Celtic tribes. The city of Veii, a rich Etruscan center, falls to Rome in 396 BCE after a prolonged siege led by General Marcus Furius Camillus. Subsequently, Roman territorial expansion continues, notably with the capture of Sutri and Nepi in 387 BCE, followed by Caere and its port of Pyrgi in 384 BCE.

Additionally, in response to increasing social tensions, Rome undergoes significant political restructuring. The plebeian class gains greater political rights, most notably after 367 BCE, when one of the two Roman consuls is consistently chosen from the plebeians, allowing broader representation in the Senate.

Greek Colonization and Sicilian Conflicts

Sicily remains a focal point of Greek colonization and conflicts during this age. Notably, the Greek city of Poseidonia falls under domination by the Lucanians before 400 BCE, subsequently renamed Paestum. Furthermore, conflicts between Greek colonies such as Selinus and Segesta draw in Carthaginian involvement. The Second Sicilian War (410–404 BCE) begins after Carthage, under Hannibal Mago, intervenes to support Segesta, dramatically shaping Sicilian geopolitics.

In 344 BCE, Timoleon of Corinth intervenes decisively in Sicilian affairs, defeating the tyrant Hicetas and a Carthaginian army at the Battle of the Crimissus, resulting in a peace treaty in 338 BCE that restricts Carthaginian influence in Sicily.

Roman-Latin and Samnite Wars

The era is also marked by critical military conflicts, such as the Latin War (340–338 BCE), which concludes with the dissolution of the Latin League and the expansion of Roman territorial control. Concurrently, the First Samnite War (343–341 BCE) sees Rome drawn into conflict with the warlike Samnites, initially siding with the city-state of Capua. Although this first conflict ends quickly, it foreshadows prolonged future struggles between Rome and Samnium.

Celtic Expansion

Celtic tribes, notably the Senones, significantly impact northern Italy, crossing the Alps around 400 BCE. By 390 BCE, under King Brennus, they sack Rome after defeating Roman forces at the Allia River, causing extensive destruction and prompting a costly Roman tribute.

Legacy of the Era

The age 477–334 BCE profoundly shapes Mediterranean Southwest Europe, characterized by significant artistic achievements, shifting geopolitical landscapes in Italy and Sicily, the rise of Rome as a dominant regional power, and ongoing cultural integration influenced by Iberian, Greek, Roman, and Carthaginian interactions. These developments lay the groundwork for the subsequent classical civilizations and the broader historical trajectory of the region.

The Messapians, an Indo-European people who inhabit the heel of Italy (modern Apulia) and speak the Messapian language, had come most likely from Illyria; they are the most southerly tribe of the Iapygesm, a name given them by the Greek authors, who linked the tribe's origin to Dedalus's son Iapyges.

(Roman authors called thenm Apuli, Salentini, and Calabri.)

Their other tribes included the Daunii and the Peucetii.

The Peuceti, an Italic people of Oscan-Umbrian origin, probably settled together with the Dauni and Messapi in the eleventh century BCE, coming from Illyria over the Otranto channel.

Iapygians are kin to the Oenotrians, another tribe of Illyrian descent who had arrived at the beginning of the Iron Age from Illyria through the Otranto Channel to inhabit the region of Apulia, Basilicata and Northern Calabria.

In the early fifth century BCE, the Lucani move south into Oenotria, driving the indigenous tribes, known to the Greeks as Oenotrians, Chones, and Lauternoi, into the mountainous interior.

The settlement of the Greeks with the first stable colonies, such as Metapontum, founded on a native one (Metabon), had pushed the Oenotrians inland.

Taranto, founded in 706 BCE by Dorian immigrants as the only Spartan colony, has increased its power, becoming a commercial force and a sovereign city of Magna Graecia, ruling over the Greek colonies in southern Italy.

In its beginning, Taranto was a monarchy, probably modeled on the one ruling over Sparta; according to Herodotus (iii 136), around 492 BCE, king Aristophilides ruled over the city.

The expansion of Taranto has been limited to the coast because of the resistance of the populations of inner Apulia.

Taranto signs an alliance with Rhegion in 472 to counter the Messapii, Peuceti, and Lucanians, but the joint armies of the Tarentines and Rhegines are defeated near Kailìa (modern Ceglie Messapica) in what Herodotus claims to be the greatest slaughter of Greeks in his knowledge, with three thousand Reggians and uncountable Tarentines killed.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (405–394 BCE): Carthaginian Dominance and Etruscan Decline

The era 405–394 BCE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe witnesses decisive military conflicts, expanding Carthaginian influence, significant shifts in regional power dynamics, and notable Roman territorial expansion amid continued cultural flourishing.

Carthaginian Supremacy in Sicily

During this period, Carthaginian influence peaks under the command of Himilco, who assumes control of the Carthaginian forces in Sicily. Himilco decisively sacks the city of Camarina and repeatedly defeats the forces of Dionysius I, the newly established tyrant of Syracuse. Despite military success, a devastating plague strikes the Carthaginian army, prompting Himilco to negotiate a peace treaty. The treaty solidifies Carthaginian dominance, making cities such as Selinus, Thermae, Akragas, Gela, and Camarina tributary vassals.

Expansion and Resistance under Dionysius I

In response to Carthaginian pressure, Dionysius I intensifies military efforts from 397 BCE, engaging Carthage in renewed conflict. Dionysius concurrently undertakes aggressive campaigns in southern Italy, capturing Rhegium and attacking its allied cities throughout Magna Graecia. With support from the Lucanians, Dionysius devastates territories belonging to Thurii and Croton in defense of the city of Locri, highlighting Syracuse’s regional ambitions and influence.

Roman Expansion and the Fall of Veii

Significant developments also unfold on the Italian mainland, particularly involving the Roman Republic. Rome, under the leadership of the semi-legendary general Marcus Furius Camillus, initiates a prolonged siege of Veii, the wealthiest city within the Etruscan League. In 396 BCE, Rome successfully captures and occupies Veii, significantly extending its influence and territory. This event marks a turning point, initiating the gradual decline of Etruscan dominance in the region.

Celtic Incursions into Northern Italy

This era also witnesses notable Celtic incursions into northern Italy, significantly reshaping the regional landscape. Around 400 BCE, the Senones, a Gallic tribe originating from present-day France, cross the Alps, settle the eastern Italian coast between Ariminum and Ancona, and establish Sena Gallica (modern Sinigaglia) as their capital. Additionally, Celts seize the city of Melpum (present-day Milan) around 396 BCE and found new settlements including Turin and Bononia (modern Bologna), significantly expanding their territorial foothold.

Cultural and Artistic Continuity

Cultural achievements continue alongside these conflicts. Notable Etruscan artistic production remains vibrant, demonstrated by fine metalwork and sculptural accomplishments. The production of red-figure pottery at Orvieto and Chiusi in Etruria flourishes, representing ongoing artistic innovation and maintaining the region’s rich cultural legacy amid political instability.

Legacy of the Era

The era 405–394 BCE dramatically reshapes Mediterranean Southwest Europe, characterized by Carthaginian ascendancy in Sicily, significant Roman territorial expansion, and influential Celtic settlements in northern Italy. These transformations decisively influence regional power dynamics, setting the stage for subsequent historical developments across the Mediterranean.

The Messapian-Lucanian alliance had led to the conquest of Eraclea and Metaponto in 356 BCE and the subsequent intervention in support of Taras by the Spartan king Archidamus III, who ultimately finds his death in battle just below the walls of the Messapian city of Manduria in 338 BCE.

Alexander of Epirus crosses over to Italy in 333 BCE to assist the Tarentines against the Lucanians, Bruttians and Samnites.

The landing of Alexander near Paestum leads the Samnites to make common cause with the Lucanians, but their united forces are defeated by turn in a pitched battle.

Alexander captures the city of Heraclea, (a Greek town that had been taken by the Italian tribes), …

…takes Sipontum (a pirate haven on central Italy's Adriatic coast) from the Apulians, …

…takes Potentia from the Lucanians, and …

…captures Consentia and …

…Terina from the Bruttii and other cities belonging to the Messapians and Lucanians; he sends three hundred noble families to Epirus to be detained there as hostages.