Christianity had come to the Illyrian-populated lands in the first century CE.

Saint Paul wrote that he preached in the Roman province of Illyricum, and legend holds that he visited Durrës.

When the Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western halves in CE 395, the lands that now make up Albania were administered by the Eastern Empire but were ecclesiastically dependent on Rome.

In 732, however, Emperor Leo the Isaurian subordinates the area to the patriarchate of Constantinople.

For centuries hereafter, the Albanian lands will be an arena for the eccesiastical struggle between Rome and Constantinople.

Most Albanians living in the mountainous north will become Roman Catholic, whereas in the southern and central regions the majority will become Orthodox.

Eastern Southeast Europe (784–795 CE): Religious Restoration, Regional Stability, and Administrative Reorganization

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Stabilization and Territorial Consolidation

From 784 to 795 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe continued to solidify as a stable entity despite past territorial contractions from Slavic and Islamic incursions. The Byzantine state was now grounded firmly in the Balkans and Asia Minor, securing regional cohesion.

Political and Military Developments

Territorial Stability and Defense

The Byzantine state maintained its territorial integrity, anchored in the Balkans and Asia Minor despite previous losses from Slavic migrations and Islamic conquests. Continued investment in military infrastructure reinforced territorial defense and ensured sustained imperial security.

Administrative Reorganization: Formation of Thrace and Macedonia Themes

In response to the persistent instability resulting from Slavic incursions, the Byzantine Empire initially established the theme of Thrace in the late 7th century within the hinterlands of Thessaloniki. However, due to ongoing challenges, the Empire withdrew its defensive lines southward along the Aegean coast. Consequently, between 789 (or 797) and 801/802 CE, Empress Irene of Athens created the new theme of Macedonia from the older Thrace theme. Byzantine Macedonia primarily encompassed modern Southern Thrace, with Adrianople as its administrative center.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Stability and Growth

Ongoing peace and political stability facilitated continued economic prosperity, enhancing agricultural productivity and securing trade routes vital for regional economic resilience.

Continued Military and Defensive Innovations

Strategic defense initiatives and infrastructure investments, particularly in frontier areas, supported regional security and preparedness against external threats, contributing significantly to imperial stability.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Flourishing Cultural Expression

Cultural and artistic activities thrived during this period, supported by sustained peace and stability. Investment in religious and cultural institutions continued to enrich regional artistic expression and identity.

Scholarly Continuity

Intellectual and educational institutions actively preserved and advanced classical and theological knowledge, ensuring cultural continuity and resilience.

Social and Religious Developments

Restoration of Religious Iconography

The Seventh Ecumenical Council, convened at the urging of Empress Irene and supported by Pope Adrian and Patriarch Nikephoros, ended the Eastern Church's official policy of Iconoclasm. The council clarified the veneration of images, distinguishing it from the worship reserved for God alone, declaring this practice legitimate and affirming the intercession of saints. This restoration had profound implications for Byzantine religious practice and cultural identity.

Strengthening of Eastern Orthodox Identity

The restoration of religious imagery significantly bolstered the influence and social cohesion fostered by Eastern Orthodox Christianity, reinforcing its central societal role and communal identity.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 784 to 795 CE was marked by significant religious restoration, territorial stability, and administrative reorganization. The establishment of the Macedonia theme, combined with the decisions of the Seventh Ecumenical Council, fundamentally shaped Byzantine religious practice and regional identity, leaving enduring legacies for Eastern Orthodox Christianity and influencing the subsequent historical trajectory of Eastern Southeast Europe.

Constantinople continues to rule Dalmatia, however, where Christianity and Latin culture have recovered in the coastal cities.

The Franks conquer part of what is today northwestern Bosnia during the late eighth and early ninth centuries.

The Bulgarians and the Romans have meanwhile initiated what will become a long tradition of rivalry over Macedonia.

Krum mobilizes as many soldiers as possible, giving weapons even to peasants and women.

This army is assembled in the mountain passes to intercept the imperial troops as they return to Constantinople.

At dawn on July 26, the Bulgarians manage to trap the retreating Nikephoros in the Vărbica pass.

The imperial army is wiped out in the ensuing battle and Nikephoros was killed, the second Eastern Emperor to suffer this fate since Valens in the Battle of Adrianople (August 9, 378).

His son Staurakios is carried to safety by the imperial bodyguard after receiving a paralyzing wound to the neck.

Fleeing with him are his brother-in-law, the curopalates Michael Rangabe, the Domestic of the Schools Stephen, and the magistros Theoktistos.

Gathered around Staurakios’s bedside, they debate the succession.

Because of his uncertain condition, he is hastily proclaimed Emperor by Stephen, who has the backing of the army.

This is the first time an Emperor of the Eastern Empire has been crowned outside Constantinople.

It is said that Krum had the Emperor's skull lined with silver (or gold) and used it as a drinking cup.

Theoktistos has been pressing Michael Rangabe at the same time however, to claim the Imperial throne for himself—given Staurakios’ injuries, and his being the son-in-law of the slain Nikephoros, Theoktistos believes he is best placed to deal with the imminent Bulgar threat.

Michael, however, continues to support his brother-in-law.

Meanwhile, to secure his accession to the throne, Staurakios presents himself feebly before the remains of the imperial army at Adrianople and seeks to reassure them by indulging in some criticism of his now dead father, which meets with their approval.

Staurakios is soon taken by litter from Adrianople to Constantinople.

Nikephoros I undertakes a massive expedition against Bulgaria in early 811, advancing to Marcellae (near Karnobat).

Here Krum attempts to negotiate on July 11, but Nikephoros is determined to continue with his plunder.

His army somehow avoids Bulgarian ambushes in the Balkan Mountains and …

…makes its way into Moesia.

They manage to take over Pliska on July 20, as only a small, hastily assembled army is in their way.

Here Nikephoros helps himself to the treasures of the Bulgarians while setting the city afire and turning his army on the population.

A new diplomatic tentative from Krum is rebuffed.

While Nikephoros I and his army pillage and plunder the Bulgarian capital, Krum mobilizes his people (including women and Avar mercenaries) to set traps and ambushes in the mountain passes.

Initially, Nikephoros intended to march through Moesia and reach Serdica before returning to Constantinople but the news of these preparations for a battle changes his decision and he chooses the shortest way to his capital.

The overconfident Emperor neglects to scout ahead.

Nikephoros’ army enters the Varbica Pass on July 25, but his cavalry tells him the road is barred with thick wooden walls and Krum's detachments watch from the heights around.

The Emperor becomes panicked by the situation and repeatedly states to his companions "Even if we have had wings we could not have escaped from peril."

Before they can retreat, the Bulgars block the valley entrance also.

Nikephoros, unable to face attacking one of the palisades, simply sets up camp, despite his generals' misgivings.

By the third night, Greek morale is shattered, while Bulgarian troops bang their shields and taunt them.

On this night, the Bulgarians gather their troops and tighten the belt around the trapped enemy.

At dawn, they rush down and start to kill the panicked and totally confused imperial troops.

The tagmata are the first to be attacked.

The defenders fruitlessly resist for a short time and perish.

Upon seeing their comrades' fate, the next units immediately run away.

On their way south, the imperial forces hit a muddy river that is difficult to cross.

As they cannot find a ford quickly enough, many troops fall into the river.

The first stall in the mud with their horses and are trampled by those who come next.

The river is filled with so many dead that the chasing Bulgarians easily pass over them and continue the pursuit.

Those who pass through the river reach the wooden wall, which is high and thick.

The imperial cavalry leaves their horses and begins climbing the wall with hands and legs and hang over the other side.

The Bulgarians have dug a deep moat from the inner side and when the imperial soldiers are getting across the ramparts, they fall from the high wall, breaking their limbs.

Some of them die instantly, others hobble some time before falling to the ground and dying from thirst and hunger.

The imperial troops burn the wall at several places but as they are rushing to get across it, they too fall into the moat along with the burning parts of the palisade.

Almost everyone perishes; some are killed by the sword, others drown in the river or are mortally injured after falling from the wall and some of them die in the fire.

Among the nobles killed are the patricians Theodosios Salibaras and Sisinnios Triphyllios; the strategos of the Anatolics Romanos and the strategos of Thrace; as well as the commanders of the Excubitors and Vigla tagmata.

Reportedly, only a few survive the defeat.

The most notable person to be killed, however, is Emperor Nikephoros, who according to historians dies on a dunghill on the day of the battle.

Nikephoros son, Stauracius, is carried to safety by the Imperial bodyguard after receiving a paralyzing wound to his neck.

Six months later, his wounds finally will kill him.

According to tradition, Krum had the Emperor's head on a spike, then lined his skull with silver and used it as a drinking cup.