Among the populations of pre-Roman Italy, the most notable are the Etruscans who, starting from the eighth century BCE, create a refined civilization that largely influences Rome and the Latin world.

The origins of this non-Indo-European people, which first settles on the Tyrrhenian coast of central Italy and later expands to northern Italy (Emilia in particular) and Campania, are uncertain.

Other peoples living in northern Italy include the Ligurians (an Indo-European people who live in what is now Liguria, southern Piedmont and the southern French coast), the Lepontii, Insubres, Orobii and other Celtic tribes in Piedmont and Lombardy, the Veneti of north-eastern Italy.

In the peninsula, alongside the Etruscans, live numerous tribes, mostly of Indo-European origin: the Umbri in Umbria and northern Abruzzo, the Latins, who will create the Roman civilization, Sabellians, Falisci, Volsci and Aequi in the Latium; Piceni in the Marche and north-east Abruzzo; Samnites in southern Abruzzo, Molise and Campania; Daunians, Messapii and Peucetii (forming the Apulian or Iapygian confederation) in Apulia; Lucani and Bruttii in the southern tips of the peninsula.

In Sicily live the Sicels, Elymians and Sicani while Sardinia is still inhabited by the Nuragic peoples.

Later, other peoples will settle in the Italian territory, cohabiting with the previous inhabitants: new tribes of Celts in the north (Senones, Boii, Lingones etc.), the Greeks and the Phoenicians in the south and in part of Sicily and Sardinia.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (717–706 BCE):

Greek Expansion, Roman Political Transition, and Founding of New Colonies

Between 717 and 706 BCE, Mediterranean Southwest Europe experiences notable Greek colonial expansion in southern Italy, alongside significant political and cultural transitions in early Rome. These developments establish key foundations for the region’s future historical trajectory.

Foundation of Croton (ca. 710 BCE)

Around 710 BCE, Achaean Greeks, led by Myscellus from Rhypes in Achaea (northern Peloponnese), establish the colony of Croton (modern Crotone) in southern Italy. Croton rapidly becomes an important Greek cultural and economic hub, strengthening Greek presence in Magna Graecia and promoting trade, agriculture, and intellectual pursuits in the region.

Establishment of Taras by Spartans (706 BCE)

Greek colonists originating from Sparta and Laconia conquer the Messapian village of Taras (modern Taranto), located on a peninsula between the Mare Piccolo and the Mare Grande in Apulia, southeastern Italy. Traditionally dated to 706 BCE, this colonization reportedly arises from Spartan efforts to relocate and remove an unwanted social group. The strategic and fertile location of Taras quickly fosters its growth into one of Magna Graecia’s most influential city-states.

Political Transition in Early Rome: End of Romulus's Rule (717 BCE)

According to Roman legend, 717 BCE marks the end of Romulus’s reign, initiating a one-year interregnum during which power rotates among Roman senators. This period of political uncertainty reflects underlying tensions between the original Latin (Romulus-founded) and Sabine factions within Rome.

In 715 BCE, after considerable political negotiation, the Senate elects the Sabine Numa Pompilius as Rome's second king. His election symbolizes reconciliation between the two major factions. Numa promptly disbands Romulus’s personal guard, the "Celeres," signaling a departure from militaristic rule towards peaceful governance, religious innovation, and institutional reform.

Religious and Calendar Reforms under Numa Pompilius (713–712 BCE)

King Numa introduces crucial reforms aimed at stabilizing and culturally enriching early Roman society. In 713 BCE, he reforms the Roman calendar, aligning it more closely with agricultural cycles and religious observances. Subsequently, in 712 BCE, Numa establishes the influential position of Pontifex Maximus, the high priest heading the College of Pontiffs (Collegium Pontificum), setting a lasting framework for Rome’s religious hierarchy.

Legacy of the Era

The era 717–706 BCE witnesses the continued Greek colonization and consolidation in southern Italy, fostering cultural exchange and economic growth. Simultaneously, significant political transformations in Rome under Numa Pompilius lay foundational civic and religious structures, critically shaping the city-state’s emerging identity and governance model. These events collectively enhance the region’s development, paving the way for its vibrant classical future.

Greek settlers from Sparta and Laconia conquer the Messapian village of Taras on the river of the same name (modern Tara) in the Apulia region of southeastern Italy in the eighth century BCE (the traditional date is 706, but it may have been earlier).

They establish a new Taras (present Taranto) on the peninsula between the Mare Piccolo and the Mare Grande.

Apparently, the Spartans have sent out these colonizers as a way of getting rid of an unwanted half-caste group.

The Messapians, an Indo-European people who inhabit the heel of Italy (modern Apulia) and speak the Messapian language, had come most likely from Illyria; they are the most southerly tribe of the Iapygesm, a name given them by the Greek authors, who linked the tribe's origin to Dedalus's son Iapyges.

(Roman authors called thenm Apuli, Salentini, and Calabri.)

Their other tribes included the Daunii and the Peucetii.

The Peuceti, an Italic people of Oscan-Umbrian origin, probably settled together with the Dauni and Messapi in the eleventh century BCE, coming from Illyria over the Otranto channel.

Iapygians are kin to the Oenotrians, another tribe of Illyrian descent who had arrived at the beginning of the Iron Age from Illyria through the Otranto Channel to inhabit the region of Apulia, Basilicata and Northern Calabria.

In the early fifth century BCE, the Lucani move south into Oenotria, driving the indigenous tribes, known to the Greeks as Oenotrians, Chones, and Lauternoi, into the mountainous interior.

The settlement of the Greeks with the first stable colonies, such as Metapontum, founded on a native one (Metabon), had pushed the Oenotrians inland.

Taranto, founded in 706 BCE by Dorian immigrants as the only Spartan colony, has increased its power, becoming a commercial force and a sovereign city of Magna Graecia, ruling over the Greek colonies in southern Italy.

In its beginning, Taranto was a monarchy, probably modeled on the one ruling over Sparta; according to Herodotus (iii 136), around 492 BCE, king Aristophilides ruled over the city.

The expansion of Taranto has been limited to the coast because of the resistance of the populations of inner Apulia.

Taranto signs an alliance with Rhegion in 472 to counter the Messapii, Peuceti, and Lucanians, but the joint armies of the Tarentines and Rhegines are defeated near Kailìa (modern Ceglie Messapica) in what Herodotus claims to be the greatest slaughter of Greeks in his knowledge, with three thousand Reggians and uncountable Tarentines killed.

Taranto, like Sparta, its mother city, had begun as an aristocratic republic, but becomes democratic when the ancient nobility dwindles.

In 466 BCE, Taranto is again defeated by the Iapyges; according to Aristotle, who praises its government, there were so many aristocrats killed that the democratic party was able to get the power, to remove the monarchy, inaugurate a democracy, and expel the Pythagoreans.

The Messapian-Lucanian alliance had led to the conquest of Eraclea and Metaponto in 356 BCE and the subsequent intervention in support of Taras by the Spartan king Archidamus III, who ultimately finds his death in battle just below the walls of the Messapian city of Manduria in 338 BCE.

Agathocles, who has continued to strengthen his rule over the Greek cities of Sicily, feels secure enough by about 304 to assume the title king of Sicily, and extends his influence into southern Italy and the Adriatic.

Cleonymus, expelled from southern Italy, sails to the north across the Adriatic Sea to land at the coast of the Veneti.

The Veneti have recurring fights with the Celtic peoples who occupy most of Northern Italy, but also have peaceful relations with the Cenomani Celts who have settled in the region of Brescia and Verona; they will eventually absorb them.

From the mouth of the Meduacus (now Brenta River) he sails upstream to the country of Patavium (now Padua) and raids the nearby villages, but the natives defeat him and he suffers great losses —allegedly four fifths of his ships are destroyed—and Cleonymus has to leave the territory of Patavium.

It is unknown how his campaign ended.

Roman consul Marcus Atilius Regulus captures the Messanian city of Brundisium (now Brindisi) in 267 (245 BCE, according to other sources).

The Brindisi Messapia certainly entertained strong business relationships with the opposite side of the Adriatic and the Greek populations of the Aegean Sea; modern Brindisi remains a major Italian port for trade with Greece and the Middle East.