Upper South Asia (388–531 CE): Gupta Golden Age, Hun Invasions, and Cultural Resilience

Rise and Flourishing of the Gupta Empire

From 388 to 531 CE, Upper South Asia witnessed the height of the Gupta Empire, under rulers such as Chandragupta II (380–415 CE) and Kumaragupta I (415–455 CE). The Gupta period is often termed the "Golden Age" of ancient India, characterized by remarkable developments in arts, sciences, literature, and philosophy. The empire encompassed vast territories including present-day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and significant parts of Gujarat and Punjab.

Artistic and Cultural Zenith

Gupta patronage fostered a renaissance of classical Indian art, particularly visible in the elaborate temples and sculptures of this period. Iconic examples include the cave temples at Ajanta and Ellora, where exquisite murals depict intricate narratives from Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. Gupta artists refined classical Indian aesthetics, establishing artistic standards that influenced subsequent regional styles.

Literary and Scholarly Advancements

This age marked significant literary and scholarly achievements. Renowned scholar Kalidasa composed timeless literary works such as "Shakuntala" and "Meghaduta" during the Gupta period. Additionally, astronomer-mathematician Aryabhata I (476–550 CE) made groundbreaking contributions in mathematics and astronomy, including early concepts of zero and an accurate calculation of pi. Aryabhata's works profoundly influenced mathematics and astronomy across Asia and beyond.

Religious Developments and Hindu Renaissance

Hinduism experienced a revival under Gupta patronage, witnessing the codification and systematization of religious and philosophical traditions. This period saw the composition of influential texts such as the Puranas, which contributed to the formalization of Hindu beliefs and practices. Simultaneously, Buddhism and Jainism continued to receive royal patronage, ensuring their coexistence and mutual enrichment alongside the dominant Brahmanical traditions.

Hun Invasions and Decline

The later years of the Gupta Empire were marked by external invasions, notably from the Central Asian Hunas (Hephthalites). These invasions severely disrupted trade, administration, and cultural patronage. Repeated Hun incursions eroded the political cohesion of the Gupta Empire, leading to its gradual fragmentation into smaller states by the early sixth century.

Regional Powers and Kingdoms

The fragmentation of the Gupta Empire gave rise to several regional powers, including the Maukharis in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the Later Guptas, and smaller kingdoms in Gujarat and Punjab. These regional entities maintained continuity in administration and culture despite political upheaval, setting the stage for later regional dynasties.

Himalayan Territories and Indigenous Cultures

In the Himalayan territories, including present-day Nepal, Bhutan, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim, indigenous communities and small principalities continued to flourish. These regions maintained their cultural distinctiveness and political autonomy, periodically interacting with and occasionally influenced by lowland powers such as the Gupta Empire.

Trade and Economic Conditions

Though affected by Hun invasions, trade networks continued to function, linking Northern South Asia with Central Asia, Persia, and the Mediterranean through the Silk Road. Cities like Mathura, Ujjain, and Pataliputra remained significant trade and cultural hubs, sustaining economic resilience even amidst political disruptions.

Legacy of the Age

The age from 388 to 531 CE profoundly shaped the cultural and intellectual landscape of Upper South Asia. Despite political decline due to invasions, the era's artistic, literary, scientific, and religious achievements laid foundations that endured through subsequent centuries, preserving and disseminating a rich heritage that influenced diverse traditions across Asia.

Rulers calling themselves Licchavis begin in the late fifth century to record details on politics, society, and economy in Nepal.

The Licchavis are known from early Buddhist legends as a ruling family during the Buddha's time in India, and the founder of the Gupta Dynasty claims that he had married a Licchavi princess.

Perhaps some members of this Licchavi family married members of a local royal family in the Kathmandu Valley, or perhaps the illustrious history of the name prompted early Nepalese notables to identify themselves with it.

In any case, the Licchavis of Nepal are a strictly local dynasty based in the Kathmandu Valley and oversee the growth of the first truly Nepalese state.

Upper South Asia (532–675 CE): Post-Gupta Fragmentation, Regional Dynasties, and Cultural Continuities

Fragmentation and Emergence of Regional Powers

The period from 532 to 675 CE was characterized by the continued political fragmentation following the decline of the Gupta Empire. In the resulting power vacuum, numerous regional dynasties emerged, each asserting autonomy over localized territories. Notable among these were the Later Guptas in Bihar, the Maukharis of Kannauj in Uttar Pradesh, and the rise of the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty, centered in Thanesar (modern-day Haryana).

The Reign of Harsha

The most prominent figure of this era was Harsha Vardhana (606–647 CE), ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty. Harsha expanded his domain to cover much of North India, including regions of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Bihar, and Odisha. Harsha's reign is remembered for its administrative efficiency, patronage of arts and literature, and promotion of religious tolerance, blending Buddhist and Hindu traditions.

Flourishing of Buddhist and Hindu Cultures

Under Harsha's patronage, Buddhism experienced significant revival, exemplified by his generous support for monasteries and Buddhist learning centers like Nalanda University in Bihar. Nalanda became a renowned international center of learning, attracting scholars from across Asia, including the famous Chinese traveler and scholar, Xuanzang, who provided detailed accounts of contemporary India.

Simultaneously, Hinduism maintained its vitality, with the continuation of religious and philosophical developments initiated during the Gupta period. Hindu temples and pilgrimage sites expanded significantly, reinforcing the integration of diverse regional religious practices.

Literary and Scholarly Contributions

Harsha himself was an accomplished writer and patron of literature, famously authoring Sanskrit plays such as "Ratnavali" and "Nagananda." His court attracted prominent poets and scholars like Banabhatta, author of "Harshacharita," a detailed biographical work highlighting Harsha's rule and cultural achievements. These works significantly influenced later Indian literature.

Regional Dynasties and Cultural Vibrancy

Other regions witnessed the emergence of influential local dynasties such as the Gurjara-Pratiharas in western India, precursors to later Rajput states. In the Himalayan regions, small independent principalities in present-day Nepal, Bhutan, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim maintained distinct cultural identities and traditions, with limited yet meaningful interactions with lowland kingdoms.

Economic Stability and Trade

Despite political fragmentation, trade networks continued to flourish. Cities like Kannauj, Ujjain, and Mathura remained significant economic and cultural centers. Northern South Asia maintained active trade links with Central Asia, Persia, China, and Southeast Asia, fostering vibrant commercial and cultural exchanges.

Influence of Central Asian Groups

This period also saw intermittent incursions and influences from Central Asian groups, notably remnants of the Hunas. These incursions introduced cultural elements and occasionally disrupted regional stability, though their lasting impact was limited as indigenous cultures proved resilient.

Legacy of the Age

The age from 532 to 675 CE represented a transitional yet culturally vibrant period in Upper South Asia's history. Despite political decentralization, the era saw significant literary, religious, and economic achievements, which sustained cultural continuity and laid foundations for future regional developments.

The economy of the Kathmandu Valley already is based on agriculture during the Licchavi period.

Artworks and place-names mentioned in inscriptions show that settlements have filled the entire valley and moved east toward Banepa, west toward Tisting, and northwest toward present-day Gorkha.

Peasants lived in villages (grama) that are administratively grouped into larger units (drangd).

They grow rice and other grains as staples on lands owned by the royal family, other major families, Buddhist monastic orders (sangha), or groups of Brahmans (agrahara).

Land taxes due in theory to the king are often allocated to religious or charitable foundations, and additional labor dues (vishti) are required from the peasantry in order to keep up irrigation works, roads, and shrines.

The village head (usually known as pradhan, meaning a leader in family or society), and leading families handle most local administrative issues, forming the village assembly of leaders (panchalika or grama pane ha).

This ancient history of localized decision making will serve as a model for late twentieth-century development efforts.

Upper South Asia (676–819 CE): Rise of Regional States and Cultural Flourishing

Political Landscape and Regional Dynasties

From 676 to 819 CE, Upper South Asia witnessed the further consolidation and expansion of regional dynasties following the fragmentation of Harsha's empire. Prominent among these emerging powers were the Gurjara-Pratiharas in western and northwestern India, centered around Rajasthan and extending influence into Gujarat, Punjab, and parts of central India. Concurrently, the Palas rose to prominence in eastern regions, especially in Bihar, West Bengal, and adjacent territories, providing stability after a prolonged period of fragmentation.

Pala Dynasty and Buddhist Revival

The Pala dynasty (founded c. 750 CE by Gopala) became a major political and cultural force in eastern Northern South Asia. The Palas were patrons of Buddhism and revitalized major Buddhist educational centers such as Nalanda University and established the renowned Vikramashila University in Bihar. These institutions attracted scholars from across Asia, reinforcing the region's international reputation as a hub of learning.

Gurjara-Pratihara Dominance

In the western and northwestern territories, the Gurjara-Pratiharas, under rulers like Nagabhata I (730–760 CE), asserted dominance, particularly against Arab incursions from Sindh. Their political authority bolstered trade and agricultural productivity, supporting urban centers like Kannauj and Ujjain, which flourished economically and culturally.

Kashmir: Cultural and Intellectual Hub

During this era, Kashmir emerged prominently as a cultural and intellectual hub under the Karkota dynasty (625–885 CE). The kingdom of Kashmir reached new heights under rulers such as Lalitaditya Muktapida (724–760 CE), who significantly expanded its territories into parts of present-day Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and even northwestern regions toward Afghanistan and Central Asia. Kashmir became renowned for its vibrant scholarly environment, fostering advancements in literature, philosophy, and architecture.

Tibetan Influence and Himalayan Kingdoms

The period saw significant interactions between the Himalayan territories and the expanding Tibetan Empire. Tibetan incursions into the Himalayan states such as Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Ladakh led to complex cultural exchanges and occasional political conflicts, influencing local art, religion, and governance structures. Nevertheless, these Himalayan regions maintained their distinct cultural identities, preserving a unique blend of indigenous and external traditions.

Economic Growth and Trade Networks

Trade routes linking Northern South Asia with Central Asia, China, and Southeast Asia continued to thrive. Cities like Kannauj, Mathura, and Pataliputra remained economically prosperous, benefiting from robust internal trade and international commerce. The consistent flow of goods, ideas, and technology significantly enriched regional cultures.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Hinduism continued its vigorous development alongside Buddhism, evidenced by the extensive construction of temples and pilgrimage sites across the region, notably in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. The rise of devotional traditions (Bhakti) became prominent, emphasizing personal devotion over ritualistic practices.

Influence of Islam and Arab Expansion

This age marked the initial phases of Arab expansion into Sindh with the conquest led by Muhammad bin Qasim (711–715 CE). Although limited initially to the western periphery, the introduction of Islam laid the groundwork for significant religious and cultural exchanges in later centuries.

Literary and Scholarly Contributions

Sanskrit literature flourished, with notable advancements in poetry, philosophy, and scientific studies. Kashmir emerged as a center for scholarship and literary production, particularly under the Karkota dynasty, producing significant works on philosophy, astronomy, and grammar.

Legacy of the Age

The era from 676 to 819 CE solidified the foundation for enduring regional identities and cultural developments in Upper South Asia. It was characterized by political resilience, economic prosperity, vibrant religious traditions, and scholarly achievements that significantly shaped the subsequent historical trajectory of the region.

One of the most striking features of present-day Kathmandu Valley is its vibrant urbanism, notably at Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhadgaon (also called Bhaktapur), which apparently goes back to ancient times.

During the Licchavi period, however, the settlement pattern seems to have been much more diffuse and sparse.

In the present-day city of Kathmandu, there exist two early villages—Koligrama ("Village of the Kolis," or Yambu in Newari), and Dakshinakoligrama ("South Koli Village," or Yangala in Newari)—that have grown up around the valley's main trade route.

Bhadgaon is simply a small village at this time called Khoprn (Khoprngrama in Sanskrit) along the same trade route.

The site of Patan is known as Yala ("Village of the Sacrificial Post," or Yupagrama in Sanskrit).

In view of the four archaic stupas on its outskirts and its very old tradition of Buddhism, Patan probably can claim to be the oldest true center in the nation.

Licchavi palaces or public buildings, however, have not survived.

The truly important public sites in these days are religious foundations, including the original stupas at Svayambhunath, Bodhnath, and Chabahil, as well as the shrine of Shiva at Deopatan, and the shrine of Vishnu at Hadigaon.

There is a close relationship between the Licchavi settlements and trade.

The Kolis of present-day Kathmandu and the Vrijis of present-day Hadigaon were known even in the Buddha's time as commercial and political confederations in north India.

By the time of the Licchavi kingdom, trade has long been intimately connected with the spread of Buddhism and religious pilgrimage.

One of the main contributions of Nepal during this period is the transmission of Buddhist culture to Tibet and all of central Asia, through merchants, pilgrims, and missionaries.

In return, Nepal gains money from customs duties and goods that help  to support the Licchavi state, as well as the artistic heritage that makes the valley famous.

The Licchavi political system closely resembles that of northern India.

At the top is the "great king" (maharaja), who in theory exercises absolute power but in reality interfered little in the social lives of his subjects.

Their behavior is regulated in accordance with dharma through their own village and caste councils.

The king is aided by royal officers led by a prime minister, who also serves as a military commander.

As the preserver of righteous moral order, the king has no set limit for his domain, whose borders are determined only by the power of his army and statecraft—an ideology that supports almost unceasing warfare throughout South Asia.

In Nepal's case, the geographic realities of the hills limits the Licchavi kingdom to the Kathmandu Valley and neighboring valleys and to the more symbolic submission of less hierarchical societies to the east and west.

Within the Licchavi system, there is ample room for powerful notables (samanta) to keep their own private armies, run their own landholdings, and influence the court.

There is thus a variety of forces struggling for power.

During the seventh century, a family known as the Abhira Guptas had accumulatedenough influence to take over the government.

The prime minister, Amsuvarman, had assumed the throne between approximately 605 and 641, after which the Licchavis regained power.

The later history of Nepal offers similar examples, but behind these struggles is growing a long tradition of kingship.

To the north, Tibet grows into an expansive military power through the seventh century, declining only by 843.

Some early historians, such as the French scholar Sylvain Levi, think that Nepal may have become subordinate to Tibet for some time, but more recent Nepalese historians, including Dilli Raman Regmi, deny this interpretation.

In any case, from the seventh century onward a recurring pattern of foreign relations emerges for rulers in Nepal: more intensive cultural contacts with the south, potential political threats from both India and Tibet, and continuing trade contacts in both directions.

The earliest known Licchavi record, an inscription of Manadeva I, dates from 464, and mentions three preceding rulers, suggesting that the dynasty began in the late fourth century.

The last Licchavi inscription is in CE 733.

All of the Licchavi records are deeds reporting donations to religious foundations, predominantly Hindu temples.

The language of the inscriptions is Sanskrit, the language of the court in north India, and the script is closely related to official Gupta scripts.

There is little doubt that India exerts a powerful cultural influence, especially through the area called Mithila, the northern part of present-day Bihar State.

Politically, however, India again is divided for most of the Licchavi period.