The Middle East (1960–1971): Regional Transformations and the Rise of Oil Politics

The era from 1960 to 1971 is pivotal for the Middle East, characterized by intense geopolitical struggles, rapid economic transformations driven by oil wealth, shifting regional alliances, and critical developments in Arab nationalism, culminating in profound long-term consequences for the region and beyond.

The Formation of OPEC and the Era of Oil Politics

In 1960, five oil-exporting nations—Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela—form the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This event marks a crucial turning point, as Middle Eastern nations begin asserting control over their natural resources and challenging Western dominance of oil markets. Initially, OPEC’s influence is modest, but the foundation laid during this era sets the stage for future global economic power shifts.

Oil wealth rapidly transforms the Arabian Peninsula. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates undergo significant modernization, investing in infrastructure, education, and healthcare. These states emerge as crucial economic hubs with growing international leverage.

Egypt under Nasser and Arab Nationalism

Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser remains the region's leading figure in the early 1960s, advocating pan-Arab nationalism, socialism, and anti-imperialism. His influence peaks with the establishment of the United Arab Republic (UAR), initially a union of Egypt and Syria (1958–1961). However, the union collapses in 1961 due to Syrian dissatisfaction with Egyptian dominance.

Nasser's regional prestige endures despite setbacks. He supports revolutionary movements throughout the Arab world, notably in Yemen, where Egyptian troops intervene in a prolonged and costly civil war (1962–1967). This drains Egypt's resources and contributes to future vulnerabilities.

The Arab-Israeli Conflict and the Six-Day War (1967)

Tensions between Israel and its Arab neighbors escalate dramatically throughout the 1960s. A critical flashpoint occurs in June 1967 with the Six-Day War, when Israel launches preemptive strikes against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, following months of escalating rhetoric and troop mobilizations.

The outcome is a resounding Israeli victory, dramatically altering the region’s geopolitical map. Israel captures the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the strategic Golan Heights from Syria. This devastating defeat deeply wounds Arab nationalism, humiliating Nasser and shaking Arab confidence.

In the war's aftermath, hundreds of thousands of additional Palestinian refugees are displaced. The occupied territories become focal points of bitter disputes, setting the stage for future conflicts and prolonged occupation.

Palestinian Nationalism and the Rise of the PLO

Following the 1967 war, Palestinian identity and resistance to Israeli occupation intensify. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), founded in 1964 as a political body representing Palestinians, rapidly evolves into a prominent militant organization under Yasser Arafat’s leadership by 1969. Palestinian guerrilla operations against Israel increase significantly, particularly from bases in Jordan and Lebanon, drawing these countries deeper into regional conflict.

In Jordan, tensions between Palestinian guerrillas and King Hussein’s government culminate in the Black September crisis of 1970. Jordanian forces violently suppress Palestinian factions, resulting in thousands of deaths and driving the PLO leadership to relocate to Lebanon, further destabilizing that nation.

Syria and Iraq: Radical Regimes and Ba’athist Rule

In Syria, instability following the collapse of the UAR leads to several coups, culminating in the seizure of power by the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party in 1963. By 1970, Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad consolidates his power through a military coup, establishing an authoritarian regime marked by socialist economic policies, repression of dissent, and strategic alignment with the Soviet Union.

In Iraq, instability persists throughout the 1960s. A Ba’athist-led coup in 1968 brings Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and his deputy, Saddam Hussein, to power. The new Iraqi government pursues extensive modernization and social reform but also establishes a fiercely authoritarian system, marked by brutal suppression of opposition and increased militarization.

Iran and the Shah’s Modernization

In Iran, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi launches ambitious economic and social reforms, known as the White Revolution (1963), aimed at rapid modernization, land redistribution, and industrialization. While the reforms stimulate economic growth and infrastructure development, they alienate religious leaders and large segments of Iranian society who view them as overly secular, authoritarian, and westernizing. Opposition to the Shah grows, planting seeds for future unrest.

Lebanon: Fragile Balance and Rising Tensions

Lebanon, traditionally viewed as a stable commercial center, becomes increasingly volatile as Palestinian refugees and PLO factions settle within its borders. By the late 1960s, Lebanese politics grow dangerously polarized, as Christians and Muslims diverge sharply over the Palestinian presence. Although full-scale conflict does not erupt until later, the foundations of Lebanon's subsequent civil strife are firmly laid during this period.

Turkey and Cyprus: Regional Conflict

Turkey, a strategic NATO member, experiences economic growth and stability under military-backed governments in the 1960s, but tensions with neighboring Greece escalate dramatically over Cyprus. Inter-communal violence on the island intensifies between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, leading to increased regional instability and setting the stage for future Turkish intervention in Cyprus (1974).

Gulf States and British Withdrawal

Britain, weakened economically and politically by World War II and subsequent global commitments, announces its intention to withdraw military and political oversight from the Persian Gulf by 1971. This sparks anxiety among small Gulf sheikhdoms previously protected by British treaties. In response, the states of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al-Quwain, and Fujairah establish the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in December 1971. Qatar and Bahrain opt for independence, becoming fully sovereign states in 1971. These new nations rapidly use burgeoning oil revenues to modernize and diversify their economies.

Oman’s Internal Conflict and Modernization

Oman experiences severe internal tensions during this period. Sultan Said bin Taimur’s repressive rule and resistance to modernization lead to significant unrest, notably the prolonged Dhofar Rebellion (1965–1975). In 1970, Sultan Said is overthrown by his British-backed son, Qaboos bin Said, who immediately embarks on a modernization program, ending Oman’s isolation and seeking regional cooperation and stability.

Legacy of the Era (1960–1971)

The period from 1960 to 1971 profoundly reshapes the Middle East. The Six-Day War significantly alters regional geopolitics, embedding long-lasting Arab-Israeli conflicts and the Palestinian issue deeply within regional and global politics. OPEC’s formation and increased oil wealth dramatically enhance the global influence of Middle Eastern states. Meanwhile, the emergence of authoritarian regimes in Syria and Iraq, the Shah’s modernization in Iran, and internal turmoil in Lebanon and Oman highlight the region's complexity and instability. These developments set the stage for intensified future conflicts, regional power shifts, and enduring strategic rivalries, profoundly influencing Middle Eastern politics into the twenty-first century.

Northeastern North America

(1972 to 1983 CE): Economic Shifts and Cultural Realignments

The period from 1972 to 1983 in Northeastern North America witnessed significant economic restructuring, profound cultural shifts, and continuing geopolitical challenges linked to the later stages of the Cold War. The region grappled with economic fluctuations, energy crises, and changing demographic patterns while remaining a hub of cultural innovation and political activism.

Economic Transformation and Energy Crisis

This era was marked by economic volatility, including a severe energy crisis and industrial restructuring, profoundly affecting communities across the Northeast.

Energy Crisis of the 1970s

Triggered by the 1973 OPEC oil embargo, the energy crisis dramatically impacted the economies of the Northeast, leading to fuel shortages, rising inflation, and a recession. Urban centers such as New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia experienced significant economic strain, prompting initiatives for energy conservation and alternative energy development.

Industrial Decline and Transition

The region's traditional manufacturing sectors, particularly in textiles, steel, and heavy industry, faced significant decline. Cities like Pittsburgh, Buffalo, and Camden experienced economic downturns and population losses as industries relocated or closed. This transition period saw increased unemployment, labor activism, and a shift toward a service-oriented economy.

Cultural and Social Movements

The Northeast remained a dynamic center for cultural expression and social activism, building upon earlier movements for social justice and equality.

Rise of Multiculturalism

Immigration patterns continued to diversify the region, with significant populations arriving from Asia, the Caribbean, and Latin America. Cities such as New York and Boston embraced multiculturalism, leading to vibrant cultural districts, diverse culinary scenes, and community-driven political representation.

Women's Rights and LGBTQ+ Activism

The feminist movement continued its momentum, achieving significant legal victories such as the landmark Roe v. Wade Supreme Court decision in 1973, affirming women's reproductive rights. The LGBTQ+ rights movement also gained visibility, notably with increased advocacy and public demonstrations, paving the way for greater social acceptance and legal recognition.

Technological Advances and Environmental Efforts

Technological innovation accelerated, particularly in computing and communication, while environmental consciousness further matured into organized activism.

Digital Revolution

The growth of information technology industries, especially in Massachusetts' Route 128 corridor, spurred significant economic and technological development. Universities and research institutions across the region became central to innovations in computing, biotechnology, and telecommunications.

Strengthening of Environmental Movements

Following the establishment of Earth Day, environmental activism intensified, leading to significant policy achievements, including the strengthening of the Clean Air Act in 1977 and increased advocacy for sustainable practices throughout the region.

Geopolitical Developments and Cold War Context

The Northeast remained influential in national and international politics amid ongoing Cold War tensions.

Anti-Nuclear Movement

The Three Mile Island nuclear incident in Pennsylvania in 1979 significantly boosted the anti-nuclear movement, resulting in heightened public scrutiny of nuclear power and increased advocacy for renewable energy.

International Relations and Peace Activism

Regional universities and urban centers played active roles in peace activism, notably opposing the escalation of nuclear arms and advocating for détente between superpowers. The Northeast hosted numerous anti-war demonstrations, reflecting continued regional activism.

Cultural Renaissance and Artistic Expression

This period saw a cultural renaissance in music, film, and art, particularly in metropolitan hubs like New York City.

Music and Art Scene

The rise of hip-hop in New York City's boroughs, particularly in the Bronx during the late 1970s and early 1980s, reshaped American music and culture. Concurrently, the punk rock movement flourished in venues such as CBGB in Manhattan, highlighting a spirit of rebellion and cultural experimentation.

Film and Media Innovation

The Northeast's media landscape expanded significantly, with New York becoming a global center for television and film production, fostering independent cinema and innovative filmmaking approaches.

Legacy of the Era (1972–1983 CE)

The era from 1972 to 1983 profoundly reshaped Northeastern North America, transitioning its economy from industrial to service-oriented, embracing multiculturalism, advancing social justice, and setting new environmental and technological benchmarks. These transformative years established a foundation for future social movements, technological advancements, and cultural diversity.

Arab producers cut oil supplies to Israel’s supporters and force up world oil prices to pressure the West.

The Soviet Union is furious, believing it had been double-crossed by the United States.

On October 24, the Soviet ambassador hands Kissinger a note from Brezhnev threatening that if the United States is not prepared to join in sending forces to impose the cease-fire, the Soviet Union will act alone.

The United States takes the threat very seriously and respond by ordering a grade-three nuclear alert, the first of its kind since President John F. Kennedy's order during the Cuban missile crisis of 1962.

The threat comes to naught, however, because a UN emergency force arrives in the battle zone to police the cease-fire.

Syria meanwhile feels betrayed by Egypt because Sadat had not informed his ally of his decision to accept the cease-fire.

Two days after Sadat, President Hafez al-Assad of Syria accepts the cease-fire as well.

Neither side has won a clear-cut victory, but for the Egyptians, it is a victory nonetheless.

The Arabs had taken the initiative in attacking the Israelis and had shown that Israel is not invincible.

The stinging defeats of 1948, 1956, and 1967 seem to be avenged.

Egyptian casualties include about eight thousand killed.

The effect of the war on the morale of the Egyptian population, however, is immense.

Sadat's prestige grows tremendously.

The war, along with the political moves Sadat had made previously, means that he is totally in control and able to implement the programs he wants.

He is the hero of the day.

The Israelis, however, have paid a heavy price for merely holding their attackers to an inconclusive draw.

In three weeks, they have lost two thousand five hundred and twenty-three personnel, two and a half times as many, proportionally speaking, as the United States has lost in the ten years of the Vietnam war.

The war has had a devastating effect on Israel's economy and is followed by savage austerity measures and drastically reduced living standards.

For the first time, Israelis witness the humiliating spectacle of Israeli prisoners, heads bowed, paraded on Arab television.

Also, for the first time captured Israeli hardware was exhibited in Cairo.

On October 17 the Arab oil producers announce a program of reprisals against the Western backers of Israel: a five percent cutback in output, followed by further such reductions every month until Israel has withdrawn from all the occupied territories and the rights of the Palestinians have been restored.

The next day, President Nixon formally asks Congress for US$2.2 billion in emergency funds to finance the massive airlift of arms to Israel that is already under way.

The following day, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia decrees an immediate ten percent cutback in Saudi oil and, five days after that, the complete suspension of all shipments to the United States.

Israel is shocked and unprepared for the war. 

After the initial confusion and near panic in Israel followed by the infusion of United States weaponry, Israel is able to counterattack and succeeds in crossing to the west bank of the canal and surrounding the Egyptian Third Army.

With the Third Army surrounded, Sadat appeals to the Soviet Union for help.

Soviet prime minister Alexei Kosygin believes he has obtained the American acceptance of a
cease-fire through Henry Kissinger, United States secretary of state.

On October 22, the UN Security Council passes Resolution 338, calling for a cease-fire by all parties within twelve hours in the positions they occupy.

Egypt accepts the cease-fire, but Israel, alleging Egyptian violations of the cease-fire, completes the encirclement of the Third Army to the east of the canal.

By nightfall on October 23, the road to Suez, the Third Army's only supply line, is in Israeli hands, cutting off two divisions and  forty-five thousand men.