Large tribes collectively known as the Scythians live in the area of present-day Kyrgyzstan beginning about 1000 BCE.

The extinct Scythian language belonged to the two-member West Scythian subfamily, of which Ossetian, the language of a people of mixed Iranian-Japhetic (Caucasian) origin inhabiting the northern flank of the Greater Caucasus range, is the surviving member.

Speakers of the East Scythian tongues, therefore, may be characterized as the Scythians who remained on the steppes of Central Asia.

The Scythians proper are a nomadic people originally of Iranian stock who migrated from Central Asia to southern Russia in the eighth and seventh centuries BCE.

Feared and admired for their prowess in war and, in particular, for their horsemanship, the Scythians founded a rich, powerful empire, centered on what is now the Crimea, that survived for several centuries before succumbing to the Sarmatians during the fourth century BCE to the second century CE.

Upper South Asia (765–622 BCE): Regional Dynamics and Cultural Flourishing

Political Consolidation and Rivalries

Between 765 and 622 BCE, Upper South Asia witnessed further political consolidation and intense regional rivalries. Kingdoms such as the Kuru and Panchala in Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh experienced heightened competition and territorial disputes. Simultaneously, the Magadha kingdom in modern-day Bihar continued its steady rise, gradually becoming a formidable political force.

Socio-Religious Evolution

This age saw the further refinement of the caste system and the deepening complexity of Vedic rituals. Societal norms solidified around the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, clearly defined within Vedic texts. Ritual sacrifices and ceremonies became increasingly elaborate, emphasizing the role of the priestly class.

Archaeological and Cultural Expressions

The Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture remained prominent, its settlements and artifacts closely aligned with the historical accounts of the period. Additionally, the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) began to appear, marking technological advancement and indicating evolving trade practices and urban sophistication in regions like Punjab, Haryana, and the central Gangetic plains.

Economic Integration and Expansion

Regional economies thrived, underpinned by advanced agricultural practices, extensive trade routes, and artisanal specialization. Key urban centers such as Taxila, now in Punjab, Pakistan, expanded significantly, facilitating extensive regional and interregional trade. Networks reaching Central and West Asia continued to foster economic prosperity and cultural exchanges.

Himalayan Regions and Interactions

The Himalayan territories, encompassing modern-day Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, and the region of present-day Sikkim, experienced increased interactions with the lowland kingdoms. While some peripheral areas of present-day Tibet had cultural exchanges with these Himalayan regions, the Tibetan plateau itself is part of the Upper East Asia subregion. Himalayan passes served as crucial conduits for trade, cultural exchanges, and the dissemination of religious beliefs.

Eastern and Northeastern Cultural Identities

In the northeastern territories, comprising present-day Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram, and adjacent parts of Bangladesh and northwestern Myanmar, regional cultures flourished. These societies maintained distinct pottery traditions, ritual practices, and economic connections with the wider Gangetic plains.

Religious and Artistic Maturation

Religious thought continued to evolve during this period, laying the foundations for future Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Artistic representations became increasingly sophisticated, reflecting religious iconography and elaborate rituals integral to the evolving spiritual landscape.

Legacy of the Age

The period between 765 and 622 BCE significantly shaped Upper South Asia's historical trajectory, strengthening regional kingdoms, enriching socio-religious practices, and enhancing economic prosperity. The cultural, religious, and political dynamics established during this time continued to resonate profoundly, influencing subsequent historical developments across the subcontinent.

The origins of the Pashtun people are unclear.

Pashtun tradition asserts their descent from Afghana, grandson of King Saul of Israel, who, according to the biblical account found mainly in I Samuel, ruled from around 1021 to 1000 BCE as Israel's first king.

Most scholars believe it more likely that they arose from an intermingling of Indo-Aryan invaders from the north or west with subsequent invaders.

Linguists designate Pashto, a member of the Northeast subdivision of the Eastern Iranian language family, as East Scythian, together with the extinct Saka tongue.

Upper South Asia (621–478 BCE): Empires, Faiths, and Cultural Transformations

Rise of the Magadhan Empire

From 621 to 478 BCE, the region of Upper South Asia witnessed the rise of the powerful Magadhan Empire in the Gangetic plain, particularly in present-day Bihar. The Magadhan state, with its capitals initially at Rajgir and later at Pataliputra (modern-day Patna), gradually dominated surrounding territories through both diplomacy and military conquest. It eventually outpaced its neighbors, including the older kingdoms of Kuru and Panchala in Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.

Emergence of Influential States

Concurrently, the age saw the prominence of influential states such as Avanti in western Madhya Pradesh, Kosala in eastern Uttar Pradesh, and Gandhara in the region corresponding to modern-day northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. These states engaged in frequent conflicts and shifting alliances, shaping the region’s geopolitical landscape.

Persian Influence and the Achaemenid Empire

In this period, territories such as Gandhara, Balochistan, and significant parts of present-day Afghanistan were incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian Empire under rulers such as Cyrus the Great and Darius I. Persian rule brought significant administrative reforms, improved trade networks, standardized coinage, and introduced Zoroastrian religious ideas, leaving enduring influences in these western regions.

Religious Innovations: Buddhism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism

This era was remarkable for the birth and rapid spread of major religious movements, notably Buddhism and Jainism. Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) and Mahavira (the founder of Jainism) actively preached across Northern South Asia, gaining substantial followings. Buddhism particularly found significant early patronage in Magadha.

Zoroastrianism, emerging from Persia, also impacted areas under Persian influence, particularly Gandhara and Balochistan, introducing new religious concepts and rituals that intermingled with local traditions.

Socio-Cultural and Caste Consolidation

The caste system became further entrenched, shaped increasingly by the Brahminical norms codified in the later Vedic texts. The division between the four major varnas—Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras—solidified further, influencing all aspects of social and religious life.

Archaeological Developments and Urbanism

Material culture saw the flourishing of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), widely associated with urban centers and elite culture, indicative of growing economic prosperity. The influential city of Taxila in present-day Punjab, Pakistan, emerged as a prominent educational and trade hub, reflecting a vibrant cultural and economic exchange extending to Central and West Asia.

Himalayan and Northeastern Interactions

The Himalayan territories—including modern-day Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, and present-day Sikkim—continued robust interactions with lowland kingdoms, facilitating the movement of goods, religious ideas, and cultural practices. Simultaneously, the northeastern regions of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram, and adjacent areas of Bangladesh and northwestern Myanmar developed distinctive regional identities and engaged in cultural exchanges with the Gangetic heartlands.

Cultural and Artistic Flourishing

The period witnessed remarkable artistic and architectural advancements. Influenced by religious developments, early Buddhist stupas and Jain temples began to dot the landscape, accompanied by sophisticated sculptures and artworks embodying religious and cultural ideals.

Peoples and Ethnic Dynamics

Ethnic groups such as the Pashtuns and Tajiks emerged distinctly in historical records during this period, especially within territories influenced by Persian culture and administration, adding further complexity and diversity to the region's demographic composition.

Legacy of the Age

The era from 621 to 478 BCE proved transformative for Upper South Asia, setting foundations for future imperial, religious, and cultural trajectories. The political dominance of Magadha, the advent of Buddhism and Jainism, and Persian administrative influences indelibly shaped the historical, social, and religious landscapes of the region.

Arachosia, Aria and Bactria are the ancient satraps of the Achaemenid Empire that make up most of what is now Afghanistan during the fifth century.

Some of the inhabitants of Arachosia are known as Pactyans, whose name possibly survives in today's Pakhtuns (Pashtuns).

Upper South Asia (477–334 BCE): Consolidation and Cross-Cultural Exchange

Expansion and Dominance of Magadha

Between 477 and 334 BCE, the Magadhan Empire further expanded its dominance under dynamic rulers such as Bimbisara and his son, Ajatashatru. Magadha, centered at Pataliputra (modern-day Patna, Bihar), solidified control over vast territories by successfully annexing neighboring states including the powerful kingdoms of Kosala and Anga. Under the Shaishunaga dynasty established by Shishunaga, Magadha also absorbed the influential kingdom of Avanti, enhancing its geopolitical significance. Its military prowess, economic strength, and strategic geographical position contributed to its ascendance as the region's dominant power.

Persian Influence and Achaemenid Integration

The western territories of Gandhara, Balochistan, and present-day regions of Afghanistan continued under Achaemenid Persian influence, fostering significant administrative and economic integration. The Persian satrapy system, coinage, road networks such as the famous Royal Road, and cultural influences—including Zoroastrianism—permeated these territories, promoting stability and interconnectedness between Northern South Asia and the broader Persian Empire. Concurrently, the local Gandhara Kingdom retained regional prominence, known for its unique synthesis of Indo-Aryan and Persian cultures.

Emergence and Spread of Buddhism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism

Buddhism and Jainism significantly expanded their followings during this period. With active royal patronage in Magadha, Buddhism notably flourished. Monastic communities and stupas proliferated, spreading throughout Northern South Asia. Jainism, under continued advocacy by disciples following Mahavira, established influential centers, further shaping regional religious and philosophical traditions. Concurrently, Zoroastrianism gained prominence in western territories under Persian rule, introducing additional religious perspectives into the region's cultural milieu.

Cultural Integration and Urbanization

The period witnessed increased urbanization characterized by prosperous trade hubs and centers of learning, such as Taxila in present-day Punjab, Pakistan. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery became more prevalent, symbolizing elite urban culture and reflecting extensive economic exchange. Urban centers became nodes of cultural synthesis, blending local traditions with Persian and emerging pan-Indian influences.

Societal Structures and Caste Solidification

Social structures, heavily influenced by Brahminical norms, grew more rigid. The caste system became deeply institutionalized, further defining societal roles and religious practices. Texts composed during this period reinforced distinctions between the four principal varnas—Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.

Himalayan and Northeastern Regional Developments

Interactions continued robustly between the Himalayan territories—including modern Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, and present-day Sikkim—and the Gangetic heartlands. Concurrently, northeastern regions including Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura,  Mizoram, and adjacent territories of Bangladesh and northwestern Myanmar continued evolving unique cultural identities, engaging in trade and cultural exchanges with the central regions.

Small kingdoms and tribal confederations in the Tarai region (southern Nepal), notably the Shakya clan of Kapilvastu, flourished economically and culturally, benefiting from interactions with larger kingdoms. The steady eastward migration of Khasa peoples (Indo-Aryan speakers) reshaped demographics in western Nepal and its eastern reaches. Indigenous Kirāta peoples, speaking Tibeto-Burman languages, maintained autonomy and distinct identities in Himalayan foothills, largely untouched by dominant Indo-Aryan cultural currents.

Artistic and Architectural Advancements

Artistic traditions thrived, characterized by remarkable sculptures, intricate pottery, and architectural innovations linked to religious monuments such as stupas and early temples. These structures symbolized the increasing religious and cultural complexities within Northern South Asia.

Emergence of Ethnic and Cultural Identities

Distinct ethnic identities, including those of the Pashtuns and Tajiks, became increasingly visible, particularly in western and northwestern territories under Persian administrative structures. These groups contributed significantly to the demographic and cultural diversity of the region, influencing trade, warfare, and cultural exchanges.

Legacy of the Age

The era from 477 to 334 BCE represented a critical period of consolidation, cultural synthesis, and cross-cultural exchange in Upper South Asia. The expanded Magadhan dominance under the Shaishunaga dynasty, Persian influences in the west, and the widespread adoption of Buddhism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism shaped enduring historical trajectories, laying foundational stones for subsequent empires and cultural traditions.

Upper South Asia (333–190 BCE): Imperial Expansion and Cultural Flourishing

Rise and Dominance of the Mauryan Empire

Between 333 and 190 BCE, Upper South Asia witnessed the rise and consolidation of the Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya around 321 BCE. The empire rapidly expanded under Chandragupta, successfully incorporating vast territories including Magadha, Gandhara, and much of present-day Afghanistan, Balochistan, and northern India. The Mauryan Empire, centered at Pataliputra (modern-day Patna, Bihar), became the first pan-Indian empire, renowned for its centralized administrative system, strong military, and extensive road networks.

Persian and Hellenistic Interactions

Following the decline of the Achaemenid Empire due to Alexander the Great's conquest in 330 BCE, the region experienced significant Greek influence, especially in the northwest. Alexander's brief control of territories including Gandhara and the Indus region introduced Hellenistic cultural elements, which later blended with local traditions, creating a unique Indo-Greek synthesis notably seen in Gandharan art.

Reign and Influence of Emperor Ashoka

The Mauryan Empire reached its zenith under Emperor Ashoka (r. ca. 268–232 BCE), who expanded Mauryan control further into southern regions and parts of present-day Afghanistan. Ashoka's transformative embrace of Buddhism after the bloody Kalinga War had profound implications. Buddhism flourished under Ashoka’s patronage, spreading significantly throughout the region and beyond. Ashoka’s edicts—inscribed on rocks and pillars at strategic locations, such as Laghman (Afghanistan), Mahastan (Bangladesh), and Brahmagiri (Karnataka)—became critical historical sources and symbols of early governance.

Urbanization and Cultural Advancements

This era saw substantial urban growth and cultural advancement, exemplified by cities such as Taxila and Pataliputra, which became renowned centers of education and trade. Economic prosperity facilitated developments in crafts and metallurgy, notably reflected in intricate pottery and widespread use of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).

Integration of Diverse Cultures

The Mauryan administration effectively integrated diverse cultural groups including the Pashtuns and Tajiks in the northwest and indigenous populations across the subcontinent. The continuing eastward movement of Indo-Aryan-speaking peoples and interactions with indigenous Kirāta peoples further diversified cultural practices in the Himalayan foothills, particularly in present-day Nepal, Bhutan, and Sikkim.

Regional Kingdoms and Tribal Confederations

Smaller kingdoms and tribal confederations in the Tarai region (southern Nepal), including the influential Shakya clan of Kapilvastu, continued to thrive economically and culturally, benefiting from interactions with the Mauryan Empire. The Tarai became an important cultural and commercial nexus, integrating local traditions with broader pan-Indian cultural currents.

Philosophical and Religious Developments

Besides Buddhism, Jainism also expanded its philosophical and religious influence, while Zoroastrianism maintained significance, particularly in regions previously influenced by Persian administration. These religious and philosophical currents facilitated broader cultural exchanges, contributing significantly to the region's diversity.

Administrative Innovations

The Mauryan Empire implemented pioneering administrative structures as detailed in the Arthashastra by Kautilya (Chanakya), an influential treatise on governance and economics. The empire established a hierarchical administrative system with provinces and districts managed by centrally appointed officials, enhancing efficiency and control.

Artistic and Architectural Legacy

Artistic expressions reached new heights, marked by the construction of numerous Buddhist stupas, monasteries, and intricate sculptures that combined Hellenistic and indigenous styles. Notable examples include the stupas at Sanchi and artistic relics from Taxila, symbolizing the fusion of diverse cultural influences.

Scientific and Medical Advancements

Advancements in medicine and science flourished during this period. The compilation of significant medical texts like the Charaka Samhita, associated with physician Charaka, provided detailed insights into early Ayurvedic medicine, including concepts of metabolism, digestion, and immunity.

Legacy of the Age

The period from 333 to 190 BCE marked a transformative epoch in Upper South Asia, defined by imperial consolidation, cultural synthesis, and remarkable advancements in governance, arts, and sciences. The Mauryan Empire's expansive influence, Ashoka’s profound religious and ethical reforms, and the integration of diverse cultural traditions laid enduring foundations that significantly shaped subsequent historical trajectories and cultural identities in the region.

Upper South Asia (189–46 BCE): Fragmentation, Cultural Flourishing, and Indo-Greek Influences

Fragmentation and Regional Powers

Following the collapse of the Mauryan Empire around 185 BCE, Northern South Asia entered a period marked by political fragmentation and the emergence of numerous regional powers. The vast territories previously unified under Mauryan rule splintered into independent kingdoms, including the Shunga Dynasty in Magadha, which retained control of much of North India. Simultaneously, new powers such as the Satavahanas in central India and various tribal confederacies in the northwest began to assert their dominance.

Indo-Greek Kingdoms and Cultural Synthesis

The northwestern regions, including Gandhara, Balochistan, and parts of present-day Afghanistan, saw the rise of the Indo-Greek Kingdoms following the decline of Mauryan power. These kingdoms, founded by successors of the Greco-Bactrian rulers, notably Menander I (Milinda), brought significant Hellenistic influences that profoundly impacted local culture, art, and governance. Menander's reign (c. 155–130 BCE) is especially remembered for his dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena, immortalized in the philosophical work Milinda Panha.

Indo-Scythian Incursions

During the late second century BCE, the Indo-Scythians (Shakas), a Central Asian nomadic people, began migrating southward into the region, establishing control over parts of present-day Afghanistan, Punjab, and Sindh. Their entry introduced new cultural and martial elements, significantly influencing local governance and social structures.

Economic and Cultural Developments

Despite political fragmentation, the period experienced remarkable economic and cultural developments. Cities such as Taxila and Mathura flourished as important trade hubs, facilitating extensive cultural and commercial exchanges with Persia, Central Asia, and even the Mediterranean world. Art, particularly the unique blend of Greek, Iranian, and Indian styles seen in Gandharan art, reached exceptional sophistication, evident in sculpture and coinage.

Expansion and Consolidation of Buddhism

Buddhism continued to expand and consolidate, benefiting greatly from patronage under the Indo-Greek rulers, especially Menander. The construction of numerous monasteries, stupas, and religious institutions in regions like Gandhara and the Gangetic plains further embedded Buddhist traditions into regional culture. Buddhist philosophy and monastic life thrived, laying the foundation for Buddhism’s future growth beyond the Indian subcontinent.

Regional Kingdoms in the Eastern Himalayan Foothills

In the Himalayan foothills, small kingdoms and tribal entities, such as those of the indigenous Kirāta peoples, maintained distinct cultural identities and political autonomy. They interacted periodically with lowland kingdoms through trade and occasional conflicts, enriching the regional mosaic of cultures and political systems.

Influence of Zoroastrianism and Local Religions

Zoroastrianism maintained a significant presence, especially in areas closer to historical Persian influence, like Balochistan and Gandhara. Local indigenous traditions and practices persisted alongside Buddhism and Zoroastrianism, demonstrating a rich tapestry of religious diversity and tolerance in the region.

Artistic and Intellectual Achievements

The era witnessed notable artistic achievements, exemplified by intricate sculptures and artifacts that integrated Hellenistic realism with Indian symbolism. Educational institutions in cities like Taxila continued to attract students and scholars, fostering advancements in medicine, philosophy, and mathematics, building upon earlier Mauryan intellectual legacies.

Legacy of the Age

The period from 189 to 46 BCE marked an era of profound cultural and political transformation in Northern South Asia. Despite fragmentation, this age saw a unique cultural synthesis fostered by the Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian influences, significant developments in religious and intellectual traditions, and sustained economic prosperity. These multifaceted developments significantly shaped the cultural identity and historical trajectory of the region, leaving enduring legacies that influenced subsequent eras.

The term Tocharian or Tokharian is based on the ethnonym Tokharoi used by Greek historians (e.g.

Ptolemy VI, 11, 6).

The first Greek mention of the Tocharians appeared in the first century BCE, when Strabo presented them as a Scythian tribe, and explained that the Tocharian—together with the Assianis, Passianis and Sakaraulis—had taken part in the destruction of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (present day Afghanistan-Pakistan) in the second half of the second century BCE.

These Tocharians have frequently been identified with the Yuezhi and the later (and probably related) Kushan peoples.

Many scholars believe the Yuezhi originally spoke a Tocharian language.

However, the debate about the origins and original language(s) of the Yuezhi and the Kushan continues, and there is no general consensus.

The geographical term Tokharistan usually refers to first millennium Bactria.

Today, the term is associated with those Indo-European languages known as "Tocharian".

Tocharian A is also known as East Tocharian, or Turfanian (of the city of Turpan), and Tocharian B is also known as West Tocharian, or Kuchean.

Based on a Turkic reference to Tocharian A as twqry, these languages were associated with the Kushan ruling class, but the exact relation of the speakers of these languages and the Kushan Tokharoi is uncertain, and some consider "Tocharian languages" a misnomer.

The term is so widely used, however, that this question is somewhat academic.

Tocharians in the modern sense are, then, defined as the speakers of the Tocharian languages.

The last Greco-Bactrian king, Heliocles I, retreats and moves his capital to the Kabul Valley.

The eastern part of Bactria is eventually occupied by Pashtun people.