Austria had seemed to be declining, or even on the verge of collapse, after several diplomatic failures and military defeats in the 1730s.

The forty-year reign of Maria Theresa has left a revitalized empire that will influence the rest of Europe throughout the nineteenth century.

She has given the Habsburg dominions an efficient administrative system that will allow it to remain a great power in its own right, without the support of the Holy Roman Empire.

Her descendants will follow her example and continue reforming the empire.

The acquisition of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria gives the empire an even more multinational character that will ultimately lead to its destruction.

Her introduction of compulsory schooling, as a means of Germanization, will eventually trigger the revival of Czech culture.

It is unlikely that Maria Theresa had ever completely recovered from the smallpox attack in 1767, as contemporary writers assert.

She has suffered from shortness of breath, fatigue, cough, distress, necrophobia, and insomnia.

She had later developed edema.

The empress had fallen ill on November 24, 1780, ostensibly of a chill.

Her physician Dr. Störk thought her condition serious.

By November 28, she asked for the last rites, and the next day, at about nine o'clock in the evening, she dies surrounded by her remaining children.

With her, the House of Habsburg dies out and is replaced by the House of Habsburg-Lorraine.

Her eldest son, already co-sovereign of the Habsburg dominions, succeeds her as Joseph II.

Her longtime rival Frederick II of Prussia, on hearing of her death, will say that she had honored her throne and her sex, and though he had fought against her in three wars, he never considered her his enemy.

The empress is buried in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna next to her husband in a coffin she had inscribed during her lifetime.

The death of the Habsburg empress Maria Theresa on November 29, 1780 had left her son Joseph II free to immediately direct his government on a new course.

He has proceeded to attempt to realize his ideal of enlightened despotism acting on a definite system for the good of all.

The measures of emancipation of the peasantry which his mother had begun are carried on by him with feverish activity; Joseph abolishes serfdom in 1781.

The spread of education, the secularization of church lands, the reduction of the religious orders and the clergy in general to complete submission to the lay state, the issue of the Patent of Tolerance (1781) providing limited guarantee of freedom of worship, the promotion of unity by the compulsory use of the German language (replacing Latin or in some instances local languages)—everything which from the point of view of eighteenth century philosophy, the Age of Enlightenment, appears "reasonable"—are undertaken at once.

He strives for administrative unity with characteristic haste to reach results without preparation.

The Patent of Tolerance (German: Toleranzpatent), an edict of toleration issued on October 13, 1781, as part of the Josephinist reforms, extends religious freedom to non-Catholic Christians living in the crown lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, including Lutherans, Calvinists, and the Eastern Orthodox.

Specifically, these members of minority faiths are now legally permitted to hold "private religious exercises" in clandestine churches.

For the first time after the Counter-Reformation, the Patent guarantees the practice of religion by the Evangelical Lutheran and the Reformed Church in Austria.

Nevertheless, worship is heavily regulated, wedding ceremonies remain reserved for the Catholic Church, and the Unity of the Brethren is still suppressed.

Similar to the articular churches admitted one hundred years before, Protestants are only allowed to erect 'houses of prayer' (Bethäuser) which should not in any way resemble church buildings.

In many Habsburg areas, especially in the 'hereditary lands' of Upper Austria, Styria and Carinthia, Protestant parishes will quickly develop, strongly relying on crypto-protestant traditions.

The Edict of Tolerance for Jews on January 2, 1782, follows Emperor Joseph II's Patent of Toleration.

The edict extends to Jews the freedom to pursue all branches of commerce, but also imposes new requirements.

Jews are required to create German-language primary schools or send their children to Christian schools (Jewish schools had previously taught children to read and write Hebrew in addition to mathematics.)

The Patent also permits Jews to attend state secondary schools.

A series of laws issued soon after the Edict of Toleration had abolished the autonomy of the Jewish communities, which had previously run their own court, charity, internal taxation and school systems; required Jews to acquire family names; made Jews subject to military conscription; and required candidates for the rabbinate to have secular education.

Dalmatia is returned to Austrian control when Napoleon is defeated in 1814 by a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and a number of German States.

Hungary regains Croatia and ...

...Slavonia.

Eastern Southeast Europe (1828–1839 CE): National Revival, Diplomatic Realignments, and Emerging Autonomies

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Russian Occupation and Romanian Autonomy

During the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, Russia again invaded the Danubian Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, resulting in the Treaty of Adrianople (1829). This treaty established Russian occupation until the Ottomans fully paid an indemnity, allowed native Romanian princes elected for life, and introduced independent national administration under Russian protection. Although nominally still under Ottoman suzerainty, these principalities enjoyed increased autonomy with Russia's diplomatic oversight.

Economic and Social Developments

Economic Hardship in Wallachia

The Danubian Principalities experienced severe economic hardship, notably described by a traveler in 1835 who found Wallachia devoid of manor houses, bridges, windmills, inns, or even basic furniture and utensils in peasant homes. This economic stagnation was exacerbated by administrative mismanagement and heavy taxation.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Bulgarian National Revival

Throughout the 1830s, the Bulgarian national revival accelerated, driven by intensified cultural and literary activities within monasteries and rural communities. Bulgarian national consciousness strengthened significantly, influenced by the broader Christian resistance against Ottoman rule and intellectual exchanges facilitated through the Danube trade and cultural links with Russia.

Croatian-Hungarian Linguistic and Cultural Conflict

The Croatian-Hungarian language conflict reemerged in the 1830s amid Hungarian efforts to assert linguistic and political dominance. Croatian intellectuals, influenced by French education, began promoting Croatian language and culture vigorously, advocating for the creation of a Slavic kingdom within the Austrian Empire.

Intellectual and Religious Developments

Ottoman Tanzimat Reforms

In 1839, the Ottoman Empire initiated the Tanzimat (Reorganization) reforms, aiming to stabilize the empire by curbing regional autonomy, modernizing the military, establishing Turkish-language schools, and promoting loyalty to the empire through an Islamic education system. These reforms significantly impacted governance and social structures in the Balkan territories.

Political Dynamics and Regional Rivalries

Greek Independence and its Regional Impact

The establishment of an independent Greek kingdom following the Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)reshaped Balkan political dynamics, influencing nationalist aspirations throughout Eastern Southeast Europe. The subsequent treaties not only secured Greek autonomy but also confirmed increased autonomy for the Danubian Principalities, guaranteed Russian oversight, and maintained European access to strategic waterways like the Danube and Turkish straits.

Serbian Autonomy and Internal Struggles

By 1830, the Ottoman Empire formally recognized Serbia as a hereditary principality under Turkish suzerainty, appointing Miloš Obrenović as prince. This recognition included autonomy for the Serbian Orthodox Church and reinforced Russia’s protective role over Serbian affairs. Despite economic growth and educational advancements under Miloš, Serbian political life was marred by internal corruption, family rivalries, and external diplomatic interventions, culminating in a constitution imposed by the Ottoman authorities in 1838 to limit princely power.

Russian Diplomatic Dominance

Russian diplomatic and military influence became predominant in Wallachia and Moldavia, particularly through the actions of Count Pavel Kiselev, who improved local governance, public health, education, and legal systems. The Reglement Organique, the first constitutional document of the principalities, was drafted under his oversight, securing Russian diplomatic control by safeguarding the privileges of the Romanian boyars.

Key Historical Events and Developments

• The Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829) and the resulting Treaty of Adrianople established Russian oversight in Wallachia and Moldavia.

• The Greek War of Independence concluded in 1832, significantly influencing Balkan nationalist movements.

• Implementation of the Tanzimat reforms (1839) by the Ottoman Empire to modernize and stabilize its territories.

• Recognition of Serbian autonomy by the Ottoman Empire in 1830, initiating modern Serbian statehood.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 1828 to 1839 was critical in reshaping Eastern Southeast Europe's geopolitical landscape, fueling nationalist aspirations and redefining diplomatic relationships. Russian diplomatic influence and Ottoman reform attempts laid foundational structures for future independence movements and state-building throughout the region.

The imperial army captures Pest early in 1849, but the revolutionary government remains entrenched in Debrecen.

In April a "rump" Diet deposes the Habsburg Dynasty in Hungary, proclaims Hungary a republic, and names Kossuth governor with dictatorial powers.

After the declaration, Austrian reinforcements are transferred to Hungary, and in June, at Franz Joseph's request, Russian troops attack from the east and overwhelm the Hungarians.

The Hungarian army surrenders on August 13, and Kossuth escapes to the Ottoman Empire.

A period of harsh repression follows.

Batthyany and about one hundred others are shot, several society women are publicly whipped, and the government outlaws public gatherings, theater performances, display of the national colors, and wearing of national costumes and Kossuth-style beards.

Eastern Southeast Europe (1840–1851 CE): Revolutions, National Movements, and Shifting Alliances

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Serbian Settlement in Southern Hungary

Following harsh repression by the Ottoman Empire, thousands of Serbs fled into southern Hungary and Slavonia, settling as border guards. The Austrian Militärgrenze (Military Frontier) thus introduced Orthodox Serbs into predominantly Catholic territories, leading to demographic changes and cultural tensions.

Romanian Migration from Transylvania

Harsh economic conditions in Transylvania, following Austrian repression of the 1848 revolutions, triggered significant Romanian migration. Many Romanian peasants, facing poverty and limited opportunities, moved into the Danubian principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia) seeking improved living conditions.

Economic and Social Developments

Economic Changes in Wallachia and Moldavia

Increased trade, particularly through the Black Sea wheat trade, facilitated by Jewish middlemen from Galicia, benefitted boyars but rarely reached the peasant majority. Infrastructure improvements began with the construction of the first major roadways, and in 1846, Gheorghe Bibescu of Wallachia and Mihai Sturdza of Moldavia agreed to dismantle customs barriers, marking the first steps toward economic integration between the two principalities.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Bulgarian National and Cultural Revival

Bulgarian cultural revival accelerated in the mid-nineteenth century. Significant advances occurred in education and literature, including the first Bulgarian-language periodicals printed primarily in Romanian emigrant centers and in Constantinople. Bulgarian intellectual life was increasingly influenced by Western and Russian educational models, fostering a cosmopolitan Bulgarian intelligentsia.

Serbian Cultural Renaissance

Serbian culture flourished through the efforts of scholars like Vuk Karadžić and Dositej Obradović. Karadžić’s language reforms, literary translations, and collection of Serbian folklore strengthened Serbian national identity and cultural unity.

Intellectual and Religious Developments

Hungarian-Croatian Linguistic Conflicts

The Hungarian Diet's 1843 law making Magyar the official language intensified linguistic tensions in the region. Croatian intellectuals responded by promoting the Croatian language vigorously, seeking to establish a distinct Slavic cultural identity within the Austrian Empire.

Bulgarian Church Autonomy Efforts

From 1849 onward, Bulgarians actively sought ecclesiastical autonomy from the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Constantinople, pressing Ottoman authorities to appoint Bulgarian bishops and permit liturgy in Bulgarian. This movement underscored the intersection of religious and national identity in the region.

Political Dynamics and Regional Rivalries

1848 Revolutions and Romanian National Awakening

The European revolutions of 1848 significantly impacted Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania. Transylvanian Romanians, excluded from political life, rallied for national recognition and equality. Austrian forces, with Russian support, eventually crushed the revolts, reinstating strict governance but abolishing serfdom, dismantling the Union of Three Nations, and granting Romanians citizenship in Transylvania, albeit without substantial land reforms.

Serbian Autonomy and Hungarian Tensions

Serbs in Vojvodina, facing Hungarian attempts at Magyarization, declared autonomy and aligned with Austrian and Croatian forces against Hungary during the revolutions. However, their hopes for autonomy were dashed when Austria harshly reimposed direct control, laying the groundwork for future tensions.

Ottoman Tanzimat Reforms Continuation

The Ottoman Empire continued its Tanzimat reforms, attempting to modernize governance and improve conditions within its European territories. Despite these reforms, nationalist sentiments and local dissatisfaction continued to grow.

Key Historical Events and Developments

• The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 led to substantial political and social upheaval across the region.

• The Romanian revolutionary movements in Wallachia and Moldavia signaled growing nationalist sentiments.

• Cultural and linguistic struggles intensified between Hungarian and Croatian groups, significantly influencing political dynamics in the region.

• Bulgarian efforts toward ecclesiastical autonomy began gaining momentum.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 1840 to 1851 was pivotal, marked by revolutionary fervor, heightened national consciousness, and significant demographic shifts. These events laid the groundwork for intensified nationalist movements and further conflicts, shaping the region's political landscape in subsequent decades.