The Middle East: 909–766 BCE

Assyrian Imperial Surge and Expansion

Beginning with Adad-nirari II (911–891 BCE), the Neo-Assyrian Empire rapidly expands, firmly establishing itself as a dominant regional power. By 904 BCE, Babylonia is subdued and reduced to vassalage, and strategic control is secured along the Khabur River. Adad-nirari's military successes lay a robust foundation for Assyria's extensive territorial ambitions.

Consolidation and Brutality under Ashurnasirpal II

Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BCE) aggressively expands Assyria westward, reaching the Mediterranean by 859 BCE and incorporating influential Phoenician cities. Ashurnasirpal II's administration is marked by brutal reprisals against rebels, including mass executions and mutilations, instilling fear to suppress dissent. His lavish new capital at Kalhu (Nimrud), featuring monumental palaces and relief sculptures, symbolically projects Assyrian power and authority.

Continued Expansion and Conflict under Shalmaneser III

Shalmaneser III (859–824 BCE) extends Assyria's dominance further, notably conquering the powerful Aramaean state of Bit-Adini and engaging a regional coalition led by Damascus. Despite temporary resistance, Shalmaneser III successfully enforces tribute from Phoenician cities, Israel, and Damascus. His reign also witnesses increasing military confrontations with the emerging northern kingdom of Urartu, a significant competitor based near Lake Van.

Internal Turmoil and Territorial Instability

Internal strife emerges toward the end of Shalmaneser III’s rule, culminating in a civil war (828–826 BCE) against his rebellious son, Ashurdaninpal. This turmoil weakens central authority, leading to territorial losses. His successor, Shamsi-Adad V (824–811 BCE), gradually stabilizes the empire, incorporating the strategically vital region of Chaldea. Under Adad-nirari III (811–783 BCE), aided initially by Queen Sammuramat (legendary Semiramis), Assyria reasserts dominance, notably reclaiming Damascus by 804 BCE.

Cultural and Linguistic Influences of the Aramaeans and Phoenicians

The Aramaeans, influential traders settled in Greater Syria, significantly shape regional commerce and culture. They simplify the Phoenician alphabet, spreading Aramaic as the dominant lingua franca across the Middle East, even becoming the official language of the later Persian Empire. Meanwhile, the Phoenicians, despite Assyrian dominance, maintain extensive trade networks and cultural resilience. Artifacts such as the sarcophagus of King Ahiram from Byblos illustrate a vibrant exchange of Assyrian, Egyptian, and Phoenician artistic styles.

Anatolian and Iranian Regional Powers

In Anatolia, the Phrygians, heirs to Hittite cultural traditions, revitalize regional prosperity from their capital at Gordium. They excel in metalworking, woodcarving, and textiles, significantly influencing regional trade and cultural exchange. Concurrently, the Mannaean state emerges around 850 BCE in northwestern Iran, characterized by fortified cities, advanced irrigation, and horse breeding, representing an important regional power.

Emergence and Rivalries of Urartu

In the north, the kingdom of Urartu solidifies under King Aramu (circa 860–843 BCE), becoming a persistent and formidable rival to Assyria. Urartu's strategic fortifications and sustained resistance mark significant geopolitical shifts, frequently clashing with Assyrian ambitions.

Innovations in Assyrian Military and Artistic Expression

Assyrian military advancements, particularly in cavalry tactics, significantly enhance their imperial capabilities. Artistic and architectural achievements, notably the iconic man-headed winged bulls and elaborate palace reliefs, symbolize imperial power and divine sanction, emphasizing the Neo-Assyrian Empire’s cultural sophistication.

Cyprus: Political Consolidation and Urbanization

Cyprus experiences considerable urban growth and political consolidation during this period, with significant centers like the kingdom of Salamis flourishing through extensive trade networks. Monumental "Royal" tombs underscore the island’s rising wealth and social complexity.

Decline and Instability under Shalmaneser IV

Shalmaneser IV (782–772 BCE) faces severe setbacks, culminating in his defeat and death in 772 BCE, triggering internal chaos and territorial losses. This period of instability underscores the challenges Assyria faces in maintaining its extensive empire amidst ongoing regional conflicts.

Thus, the era from 909 to 766 BCE encapsulates a profound and transformative phase in Middle Eastern history, marked by dynamic imperial expansion, significant cultural exchanges, geopolitical rivalries, and internal political struggles that shape the region for centuries.

Assyrian rule (875-608 BCE) deprives the Phoenician cities of their independence and prosperity and brings repeated, unsuccessful rebellions.

Near East (909–766 BCE): Consolidation, Conflict, and Cultural Flourishing

Nubian Expansion and Egyptian Shifts

During the late ninth and early eighth centuries BCE, Egypt experiences significant geopolitical transformations. Kashta, a Kushite king based in Napata, expands his influence northward into Upper Egypt, notably installing his daughter Amenirdis I as the prospective God's Wife of Amun in Thebes. This effectively legitimizes Nubian dominance, paving the way for his son Piye to consolidate Kushite power across Egypt around 747 BCE. Under Piye's rule, Egyptian cultural and religious traditions experience revitalization, with an increasing adoption of Nubian elements.

Israel, Judah, and Regional Rivalries

This period sees Israel and Judah embroiled in frequent conflicts, both internally and with neighboring states. Notably, the Mesha Stele, or Moabite Stone, crafted by King Mesha of Moab around 850 BCE, provides critical historical insights. This stele details Mesha’s rebellion against Israelite domination under the "House of Omri," referencing the Israelite god Yahweh and potentially the earliest extrabiblical mention of the "House of David." The kingdoms of Edom and Moab also rise prominently, intensifying regional dynamics, with Edom gaining significance through increased trade and mining activities.

Israel under Omri (c. 876–869 BCE) and his son Ahab (c. 869–850 BCE) emerges as a significant regional power, marked by extensive military campaigns, construction projects, and an influential Phoenician alliance forged through Ahab’s marriage to Jezebel, daughter of Ithbaal of Tyre and Sidon. The internal religious turmoil intensifies with the clash between Phoenician Baal worship and Hebrew monotheism, particularly under the prophets Elijah and Elisha.

Assyrian Dominance and Local Autonomy

The Assyrian Empire, under rulers such as Shalmaneser III and later Tiglath-Pileser III, exerts considerable influence over the Near East, frequently subduing and extracting tribute from kingdoms such as Israel and the city-states of Phoenicia. Despite periodic revolts by city-states like Tyre and regional leaders, Assyria largely maintains its dominance through military might and political coercion, reshaping the political landscape significantly.

Sabaean Ascendancy and Arabian Trade

To the south, the Sabaean Kingdom in southern Arabia (biblical Sheba), beginning around the tenth century BCE, becomes a vital trade nexus connecting Arabia, Syria, and Mesopotamia. Controlling major caravan routes and flourishing economically, the Sabaeans significantly influence commerce and cultural exchanges across the Near East.

Greek Expansion in Anatolia and Cyprus

The collapse of Mycenaean civilization and the subsequent Dorian invasion in mainland Greece prompt waves of Ionian and Dorian refugees to establish new settlements in Asia Minor. The Ionian coast flourishes culturally and commercially with prominent cities such as Phocaea, Ephesus, and Miletus. Concurrently, the Dorians establish influential cities like Halicarnassus and Knidos, integrating into regional power dynamics through leagues like the Dorian Hexapolis. Cyprus also emerges as a significant cultural and commercial hub, with a Phoenician colony established at Citium around 800 BCE, contributing to the island's complex demographic and cultural landscape.

Cultural and Linguistic Developments

The Hebrew alphabet, evolving from Phoenician script, is reflected in early texts like the Gezer Calendar (tenth century BCE), demonstrating early literacy and agricultural traditions among the Israelites. Concurrently, the Elohist (E) textual source emerges, emphasizing Israel's northern kingdom perspectives, portraying a less anthropomorphic deity, Elohim, and competing religious practices.

Legacy of the Age

This age marks a profound consolidation and conflict across the Near East, with regional powers negotiating their positions amidst shifting alliances and rivalries. The cultural and political developments—ranging from Nubian expansion in Egypt, Hebrew religious struggles, Assyrian dominance, Greek colonization in Anatolia, to burgeoning Arabian trade—lay essential foundations for the complex historical trajectories that continue to shape the region's future.

The Near East (849–838 BCE): Dynastic Upheaval and Religious Conflicts

The End of Ahab’s Dynasty

During this era, political turmoil and religious struggles profoundly reshape the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Following the death of King Ahab, the northern kingdom continues under the rule of his son Jehoram, who maintains the alliance with Judah forged by his father. However, Jehoram’s reign is marred by continuous warfare, notably an unsuccessful attempt to quell the Moabite revolt alongside King Jehoshaphat of Judah.

Jehoram later attempts to recapture Ramoth-gilead from the Aramean king Hazael, suffering severe wounds in battle. As he convalesces in Jezreel, his rule abruptly ends with a violent coup initiated by his own commander, Jehu. Acting on instructions from the prophet Elijah, Jehu leads a ruthless revolt around 843 BCE, eliminating Jehoram, his ally Ahaziah, king of Judah, and numerous royal family members, effectively exterminating the Omride dynasty. Notably, Jehu orders the defenestration of Jezebel, whose death—foretold by Elijah—symbolizes the end of the Phoenician alliance and the suppression of Baal worship in Israel.

Religious Strife and Prophetic Influence

Central to these upheavals is a fierce struggle over religious practices. Jezebel’s zealous promotion of Baal worship, involving hundreds of Baal prophets, is directly opposed by the prophetic activities of Elijah and his successor Elisha. Elisha, characterized by political astuteness, significantly shapes Israel's religious and political trajectory, navigating the complexities left by Elijah’s confrontational legacy.

The revolution led by Jehu, driven by religious fervor against Baal worship, underscores the continuing internal conflicts over Israelite religious identity. Although Jehu’s coup secures his ascendancy and ends the Omride dynasty, it simultaneously weakens Israel’s strategic alliances, leaving the kingdom vulnerable to external threats, notably from Assyria under Shalmaneser III. By 841 BCE, Assyria exacts tribute from Jehu, as well as from the Phoenician city of Sidon, highlighting Israel's reduced regional influence.

Judah’s Internal Struggles and Edomite Revolt

In Judah, following Jehoshaphat’s death in 849 BCE, his son Jehoram inherits the throne. Jehoram's reign, however, is plagued by severe internal unrest and external threats. His marriage to Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, strengthens the alliance with Israel but introduces Baal worship into Judah. Jehoram violently consolidates power by massacring his kinsmen, but his reign is destabilized by revolts from Edom and Libnah, and invasions by Philistines and Arabs, culminating in a devastating sack of Jerusalem.

After Jehoram's death, his son Ahaziah ascends the throne but reigns briefly until he is killed during Jehu’s purge. This opens the door for Athaliah’s rule. Intent on promoting Baal worship, Athaliah seeks to eliminate the Davidic line loyal to Yahweh, sparing only the infant heir Jehoash (Joash), hidden away by priests loyal to Yahweh. After six or seven years, Athaliah's reign ends violently through a priestly-led revolt, reinstating traditional worship and the Davidic lineage.

Ezion-Geber and Regional Shifts

The strategic port city of Ezion-Geber, rebuilt under Jehoshaphat, suffers destruction again around the mid-ninth century BCE, likely due to the Edomite rebellion against Judah. This event symbolizes broader shifts in regional power dynamics and the ongoing struggle to control economically critical routes.

Summary of the Era

The years 849–838 BCE mark a period of intense dynastic upheaval and religious conflict within and between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The violent end of the Omride dynasty under Jehu profoundly reshapes Israel’s internal and external political landscape. Concurrently, Judah experiences turmoil through revolts and invasions, complicated by religious divisions introduced by Athaliah. This tumultuous period underscores the complex interplay between dynastic politics, religious identity, and regional power struggles in the Near East.

The Middle East: 765–622 BCE

Imperial Decline and Urartian Expansion

Beginning around 765 BCE, the Assyrian Empire experiences significant decline, marked by ominous events such as the eclipse of 763 BCE, devastating plagues, and internal revolts. This instability severely undermines Assyrian authority, enabling Urartu—a kingdom centered around Lake Van—to ascend as a powerful northern rival. Under King Argishtis I, Urartu expands dramatically, founding cities like Erebouni (modern Yerevan), temporarily dominating northern Syria, and even threatening Babylon. At its height, Urartu controls Armenia, parts of Georgia, and extensive regions of northern Mesopotamia, significantly challenging Assyrian dominance.

Tiglath-Pileser III and Assyrian Resurgence

Tiglath-Pileser III’s accession in 745 BCE dramatically reverses Assyrian fortunes. He quickly stabilizes the empire, implementing crucial military reforms by creating a permanent standing army and an effective bureaucracy. Between 740 and 732 BCE, Tiglath-Pileser leads decisive campaigns, defeating Syrian coalitions, capturing Damascus—the heart of the Aramaean kingdom—and annexing vassal states in eastern Anatolia. His actions involve extensive deportations, notably from northern Israel, integrating these regions firmly into Assyria. He also imposes tribute on Arabian tribes and reasserts control over Babylon, consolidating Assyria’s southern frontier.

Sargon II’s Conquests and Architectural Legacy

Sargon II significantly expands Assyrian domination, capturing strategic cities such as Carchemish in 717 BCE and weakening Urartu with a major campaign in 714 BCE. He commemorates these achievements by building a grand new capital, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad), featuring monumental gateways guarded by colossal winged bulls, ornate temples, and lavishly decorated royal palaces. Despite his successes, Sargon falls in battle against the Cimmerians in 705 BCE, marking a critical turning point for Assyria.

Sennacherib’s Rule and Babylonian Revolts

Sennacherib relocates the Assyrian capital to Nineveh, transforming it into a monumental city. His reign is dominated by internal rebellions, notably in Babylon, incited by the persistent Chaldean prince Marduk-apla-iddina II. In a brutal act in 689 BCE, Sennacherib razes Babylon, deeply shocking Mesopotamian society and perceived as sacrilegious. This ruthless act contributes to his assassination in 681 BCE, viewed contemporaneously as divine retribution.

Esarhaddon’s Diplomacy and Reconstruction

Ascending amidst turmoil, Esarhaddon quickly stabilizes the empire through diplomatic acumen. He rebuilds Babylon, restoring key religious sites, notably the Esagila temple, thereby regaining Babylonian favor. Esarhaddon adeptly manages threats from Cimmerians and Scythians through strategic alliances, securing Assyrian borders and revitalizing religious and cultural institutions across both Assyria and Babylonia.

Ashurbanipal: Scholar-King and Library Builder

Ashurbanipal rules with scholarly distinction, establishing a renowned library in Nineveh, amassing extensive collections of cuneiform texts from across Mesopotamia. Highly educated, he demonstrates scholarly and mathematical prowess, including the rare ability to interpret ancient Sumerian scripts. However, his reign is also notorious for cruelty towards defeated enemies, vividly depicted in reliefs and inscriptions. Although appearing peaceful later, underlying tensions and succession disputes foreshadow Assyrian fragility.

Fragmentation and Rise of Babylon and Media

Following Ashurbanipal’s death, Assyria plunges into a severe succession crisis involving multiple contenders, including Ashur-etil-ilani, Sinsharishkun, and general Sin-shumu-lishir. This internal chaos critically weakens Assyria. Concurrently, Nabopolassar leads a successful Chaldean rebellion, establishing Babylonian independence by 629 BCE. At the same time, Cyaxares of Media overthrows Scythian dominance, consolidating Media and preparing to confront Assyria. These developments set the stage for a decisive coalition of Babylonians and Medes, poised to end Assyrian dominance.

Sidon rebels during the seventh century BCE and is completely destroyed by Esarhaddon (681-668 BCE), and its inhabitants are enslaved.

Esarhaddon builds a new city on Sidon's ruins.

Assyrian oppression of Phoenicia continues unabated, and Tyre rebels again, this time against Sargon II (722-05 BCE), who successfully besieges the city in 721 BCE and punishes its population.

Cyprus in 708 BCE encompasses seven independent kingdoms that are conquered by the Assyrian king, Sargon II.

Cypriot kings maintain considerable autonomy in domestic affairs and accumulate great wealth during the century of Assyrian dominance.

The number of city-kingdoms increases to ten, one of which is Phoenician.

The Cypriot kings are religious as well as secular leaders and generally command the city's defense forces.