North Europe (1684–1827 CE)

Imperial Borderlands, Oceanic Gateways, and Peasant Resilience

Geography & Environmental Context

North Europe here unites two interlocking maritime rims: the Northeast Baltic world—Sweden, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Kaliningrad, and eastern Denmark & Norway (with Copenhagen and Oslo)—and the Northwest Atlantic world—Iceland, Ireland, the United Kingdom, western Norway, and western Denmark. Anchors ranged from the Åland–Stockholm archipelagos, Gulf of Finland/Bothnia, and Daugava–Nemunas basins to the Thames, Mersey, Clyde, the Norwegian fjords, and the Øresund strait. Forested interiors, lake belts, fertile lowlands, and ice-bound seas met stormy Atlantic corridors—a geography built for timber, tar, grain, fish, and ships.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age lingered: long, freezing winters locked the Baltic, delaying sailings; poor summers in the 1690sdrove famines in Finland and the Baltic provinces. On the Atlantic rim, gales and storm surges battered coasts; Laki (1783–84) darkened Iceland and chilled Europe; Tambora (1816–17) brought the “Year Without a Summer,” spiking dearth from Ireland to the Baltic. Fisheries and fuelwood buffered many communities; so did later adoption of potatoesand fodder crops.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Scandinavian/Baltic belt: Mixed grain (rye, barley, oats), livestock, and forestry; svedjebruk (slash-and-burn) persisted in Finland; Baltic estates worked serf labor for export rye and oats.

• Norway & Iceland: Cod/herring and smallholder farming sustained fjord and island settlements; inland Norwegians blended grain, timber, and stock.

• Britain & Ireland: Southeast England specialized in wheat; oats/potatoes/cattle dominated Ireland and the Scottish Highlands (amid Clearances).

• Urban nodes: Stockholm, Riga, Tallinn, Vilnius, Copenhagen, Oslo, London, Dublin, Edinburgh, Bergen—administrative and mercantile hubs for grain, tar, timber, sailcloth, and fish.

Technology & Material Culture

• Agro-forestry: Danish and Swedish drainage and rotations raised yields; Baltic baronial estates scaled up grain and flax; Norwegian sawmills and Swedish tar/iron fed navies.

• Ship & sea: Copper-sheathed hulls, chronometers, and improved rigs extended range; Copenhagen’s dockyards and British yards turned out fleets.

• Industry & crafts: Meissen-influenced porcelains in the Baltic towns; hemp, flax, sailcloth, potash, and pitch supplied Europe’s maritime expansion. In Britain, early steam engines, canals, and mechanized textiles signaled industrial takeoff.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Baltic highway: Danzig–Riga–Stockholm–Copenhagen to Amsterdam/London moved rye, timber, tar, hemp, and sailcloth.

• Øresund tolls: Gave Copenhagen leverage over Baltic traffic until Napoleonic disruption.

• Atlantic lanes: The Thames–Clyde–Mersey estuaries connected coal, iron, and textiles to imperial routes; Irish cattle, butter, and linen provisioned fleets.

• Overland ties: Riga–Vilnius–Tallinn linked to Moscow/Warsaw; Scottish drovers’ roads, Irish canals, and British turnpikes integrated hinterlands.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Confessions & capitals: Lutheran parish life shaped Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Finland; Catholictraditions anchored Lithuania and parts of Ireland; Orthodox communities persisted in the eastern Baltic.

• Learning & letters: Uppsala, Lund, Copenhagen fostered Enlightenment science; Vilnius shone in Jesuit scholarship; London/Edinburgh powered the Scottish Enlightenment.

• Popular cultures: Pansori-like analogues here were folk epics, sagas, runo-songs, woodcarving, and embroidery—arts that carried identity across shifting borders.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Risk portfolios: Slash-and-burn rye, tar production, and forest by-products hedged poor harvests in the north; cod/herring filled lean years.

• Communal welfare: Lutheran parish relief, Orthodox brotherhoods, Catholic confraternities, and municipal granaries mitigated famine.

• Agrarian change: Potatoes, clover, and enclosure (Britain/Denmark) lifted yields; Baltic households added gardens, flax, and seasonal wage-work to survive volatility.

Political & Military Shocks

• Great Northern War (1700–1721): Sweden’s imperial retreat; Estonia, Livonia, Ingria ceded to Russia.

• State realignments: Finland ceded to Russia (1809, Grand Duchy); Denmark–Norway split after the Gunboat War and Copenhagen (1807)—Norway entered union with Sweden (1814).

• British ascendancy: Naval supremacy, Acts of Union (1707, 1801), and global war redirected trade and industry; blockades reshaped Baltic exports.

• Napoleonic era: Øresund politics, privateering, and neutral convoys re-routed shipping; Dutch decline opened room for British and Russian leverage in northern seas.

Transition

From 1684 to 1827, North Europe shifted from Swedish–Danish dominance in a frozen sea to a Russian Baltic and British Atlantic order. Borders moved—Finland to Russia, Norway to union with Sweden—yet parish life, commons, and fisheries underwrote endurance. By the 1820s, the region was knit into global circuits as supplier of grain, timber, tar, sailcloth, fish, coal, iron, and textiles. The age ended with monarchies restored, but with industrial, maritime, and national currents already remapping the northern rim of Europe.

Northeast Europe (1684–1827 CE)

Imperial Borderlands, Enlightenment Currents, and Peasant Resilience

Geography & Environmental Context

Northeast Europe includes Sweden, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, the Russian enclave of Kaliningrad, and eastern Denmark and Norway (including Copenhagen and Oslo). Anchors include the Baltic Sea littoral (from Skåne to Riga), the archipelagos of Åland and Stockholm, the Gulf of Finland and Gulf of Bothnia, the forests and lakes of Karelia, the Daugava and Nemunas river basins, and the capitals Stockholm, Copenhagen, Oslo, Riga, Tallinn, and Vilnius. The landscape mixed maritime corridors, forested interiors, fertile plains, and ice-bound winters, making it one of Europe’s most contested frontiers between Scandinavia, Russia, and Central Europe.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age remained influential: long winters froze the Baltic for months, delaying shipping until late spring. Grain harvests faltered in Finland and the Baltic provinces during poor summers, producing recurrent famines (notably in the 1690s). Storm surges damaged Danish and Swedish coasts, while in Norway and Finland fisheries buffered crop failures. By the early 19th century, climatic swings—such as the Tambora eruption in 1815—again caused food shortages, heightening social vulnerability.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Scandinavia: Mixed farming dominated Denmark and southern Sweden, while northern zones relied on rye, barley, livestock, forestry, and coastal fisheries. Finland combined shifting cultivation and rye paddies with slash-and-burn (svedjebruk).

• Baltic provinces: Grain estates worked by serfs supplied rye, oats, and barley for export. Forests yielded tar, pitch, and timber.

• Norway: Coastal communities depended on cod and herring, supplemented by small-scale farming.

• Urban centers: Riga, Tallinn, Vilnius, Copenhagen, and Stockholm grew as administrative and mercantile hubs, tied to the Baltic’s export economy.

Technology & Material Culture

• Agriculture: Crop rotations and drainage projects in Denmark and Sweden improved yields; serf estates in the Baltic stuck to older forms but increased scale.

• Forestry & shipbuilding: Norwegian and Swedish timber fed shipyards; Danish naval bases like Copenhagen flourished.

• Crafts & trade goods: Baltic hemp, flax, tar, and sailcloth were vital for European navies. Riga exported rye and potash; Vilnius and Kaunas were centers for crafts and printing.

• Architecture & arts: Lutheran churches in Sweden, Orthodox and Catholic cathedrals in Lithuania and Latvia, neoclassical palaces in Copenhagen and Stockholm, and manor houses across the Baltic baronies reflected elite culture.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Baltic Sea: A commercial highway linking Danzig, Riga, Stockholm, and Copenhagen to Amsterdam and London.

• Sound (Øresund): Danish tolls on shipping gave Copenhagen leverage until the early 19th century.

• Overland routes: Connected Vilnius, Riga, and Tallinn to Moscow and Warsaw, carrying merchants, soldiers, and ideas.

• Imperial expansion: Sweden’s empire contracted after the Great Northern War (1700–1721), ceding Estonia, Livonia, and Ingria to Russia. Denmark–Norway maintained its dual monarchy until 1814, when Norway entered union with Sweden. Finland was ceded by Sweden to Russia in 1809, becoming the Grand Duchy of Finland.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Sweden: Lutheran orthodoxy shaped village schools and parish life; universities at Uppsala and Lund fostered Enlightenment scholarship.

• Finland: Oral poetry, later recorded in the Kalevala, preserved mythic traditions alongside Lutheran faith.

• Baltic provinces: German-speaking elites dominated serf peasantry; manor culture expressed baroque and later neoclassical aesthetics.

• Lithuania: Catholic baroque churches flourished; Vilnius was a major Jesuit intellectual center until Russian annexation.

• Denmark and Norway: Lutheran culture intertwined with maritime traditions; Copenhagen became a hub of Enlightenment philosophy and art.

• Across the region, folk songs, woodcarving, embroidery, and festival calendars sustained peasant lifeways despite shifting political frontiers.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Northern strategies: Slash-and-burn rye cultivation in Finland, cod and herring fisheries in Norway, and tar production in Sweden hedged against grain shortfalls.

• Estate economies: Baltic serfs produced surpluses for export, but households relied on gardens, livestock, and forest foraging to survive lean years.

• Communal institutions: Lutheran parish relief, Orthodox brotherhoods, and Catholic confraternities offered famine and sickness support.

• Diversification: Households engaged in spinning, weaving, and seasonal labor to buffer instability.

Transition

Between 1684 and 1827, Northeast Europe shifted from Swedish dominion to Russian ascendancy. The Great Northern War ended Swedish imperial ambitions; Denmark–Norway was reshaped in Napoleonic diplomacy; Finland and the Baltic lands were absorbed into the Russian Empire. Yet resilience remained grounded in parish life, peasant commons, and the Baltic export economy. By the early 19th century, the region was enmeshed in global trade as a supplier of grain, tar, timber, and fish, even as shifting borders and climatic shocks continually tested its social fabric.

East Central Europe (1684–1827 CE): From Vienna’s Salvation to the Age of Revolutions

Geography & Environmental Context

East Central Europe includes the greater part of Germany east of 10°E (Brandenburg, Saxony, Thuringia, Franconia, eastern Bavaria, Silesia), together with Bohemia and Moravia, the Austrian heartlands (Vienna, Lower and Upper Austria, Carinthia, Styria), and parts of the upper Danube basin. Anchors include the Elbe and Oder valleys, the Ore and Sudeten Mountains, the Danube corridor through Vienna, and the Vienna Woods and Alpine forelands. These landscapes connected the Holy Roman Empire’s patchwork of German states with the Habsburg monarchy’s Danubian dominion.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The end of the Little Ice Age produced climatic instability—harsh winters (notably 1708–09, “the Great Frost”) and drought years interspersed with good harvests. Floods along the Elbe, Oder, and Danube repeatedly damaged fields and towns. The spread of the potato and clover improved food security and fodder supplies, mitigating famine after mid-century. By the early 19th century, agrarian innovation was widespread.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agriculture: Rye, oats, and wheat remained staples, with potatoes gradually adopted across Saxony, Bohemia, and Austria. Vineyards revived in Franconia and along the Danube. Sheep grazing supported a wool trade in Silesia and Saxony.

• Urban centers:

  • Vienna expanded as the Habsburg capital and cultural hub.

  • Prague rebuilt after Thirty Years’ War devastation.

  • Berlin emerged as Brandenburg-Prussia’s capital.

  • Leipzig’s trade fairs tied Central Europe into global commerce.

• Industrial proto-centers: Saxon textiles, Silesian mining, and Austrian ironworks foreshadowed later industrial revolutions.

Technology & Material Culture

• Transport: The Elbe and Danube carried bulk goods; improved roads supported armies and post coaches. Canals were planned but rarely realized.

• Industry: Mining of silver, salt, and iron; Saxon porcelain (Meissen, from 1710) became a prestige export.

• Everyday life: Timber-framed villages and baroque towns persisted; after 1750, rococo and neoclassical styles marked elite culture. New consumer goods—coffee, sugar, porcelain, printed cottons—spread among urban middle classes.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Danube corridor: Vienna to Budapest and Belgrade, supplying grain and military convoys.

• Elbe corridor: Leipzig and Dresden to Hamburg.

• Military marches: Repeated campaigns of Habsburg, Prussian, and Saxon armies moved through Silesia, Bohemia, and Austria.

• Intellectual networks: Universities (Halle, Jena, Vienna, Prague) circulated Enlightenment and Romantic thought.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Baroque Catholicism: Habsburg Austria rebuilt monasteries and churches in monumental style, asserting Catholic power.

• Protestant learning: Saxony and Brandenburg cultivated Pietism and rationalist theology; universities fostered Enlightenment scholarship.

• Music and arts: Vienna became a musical capital—Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven transformed European culture. German literature blossomed in Leipzig, Weimar, and Berlin (Goethe, Schiller).

• National awakenings: Early stirrings of Czech, Slovak, and German romantic nationalism emerged, emphasizing folk traditions and vernacular culture.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Potato adoption: Widespread cultivation reduced famine vulnerability after the 1770s.

• Agricultural reforms: Enclosure, crop rotation, and estate rationalization under enlightened absolutists.

• Disaster response: Parish granaries and charitable institutions distributed food in bad years.

• Forest regulation: Habsburg and Prussian forestry codes sought sustainable timber supply.

Political & Military Shocks

• Ottoman wars: The failed Ottoman siege of Vienna (1683) was followed by Habsburg advances into Hungary and the Balkans.

• War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714): Austria gained territories in Italy and the Low Countries.

• Pragmatic Sanction (1713): Secured Maria Theresa’s succession, contested in the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748).

• Silesian Wars (1740–1763): Frederick the Great seized Silesia, establishing Prussia as Austria’s rival.

• Seven Years’ War (1756–1763): A global war with East Central Europe as a major theater; Prussia survived against Austria, Russia, and France.

• Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815): Vienna repeatedly occupied; the Holy Roman Empire dissolved (1806); Austria fought at Austerlitz (1805), Wagram (1809), Leipzig (1813).

• Congress of Vienna (1815): Austria regained centrality in German affairs, while Prussia expanded in the Rhineland.

• 1820s unrest: Student protests and secret societies (Carlsbad Decrees, 1819) signaled the era of rising nationalism and liberalism.

Transition

From 1684 to 1827, East Central Europe was reshaped by warfare, dynastic rivalry, and cultural efflorescence. The Habsburgs defended Vienna, expanded southward, and patronized Catholic Baroque and Enlightenment reform. Prussia emerged as a disciplined military state, rivaling Austria for dominance in the German lands. Saxony and Bohemia rebuilt as cultural and economic hubs, while peasants adopted potatoes and clover to stabilize food supplies. By 1827, the subregion was firmly part of a Europe redefined by the Napoleonic Wars and the Vienna settlement—its dynasties resilient, but new currents of nationalism and revolution already stirring.

Russia continues to expand.

The Congress of Vienna creates the Kingdom of Poland (Russian Poland), to which Alexander grants a constitution.

Thus, Alexander I becomes the constitutional monarch of Poland while remaining the autocratic tsar of Russia.

He is also the limited monarch of Finland, which had been annexed in 1809 and awarded autonomous status.

In 1813 Russia gains territory in the Baku area of the Caucasus at the expense of Persia.

The empire is by now firmly ensconced in Alaska also.

The Russo-French alliance gradually becomes strained.

Napoleon is concerned about Russia's intentions in the strategically vital Bosporus and Dardenelles straits.

At the same time, Alexander views the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, the French-controlled reconstituted Polish state, with suspicion.

The requirement of joining France's Continental Blockade against Britain is a serious disruption of Russian commerce, and in 1810 Alexander repudiates the obligation.

In June 1812, Napoleon invades Russia with six hundred thousand troops—a force twice as large as the Russian regular army.

Napoleon hopes to inflict a major defeat on the Russians and force Alexander to sue for peace.

As Napoleon pushes the Russian forces back, however, he becomes seriously overextended.

Obstinate Russian resistance combines with the Russian winter to deal Napoleon a disastrous defeat, from which fewer than thirty thousand of his troops return o their homeland.

As the French retreat, the Russians pursues them into Central and Western Europe and to the gates of Paris.

After the allies defeat Napoleon, Alexander becomes known as the savor of Europe, and he plays a prominent role in the redrawing of the map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

In the same year, under the influence of religious mysticism, Alexander initiates the creation of the Holy Alliance, a loose agreement pledging the rulers of the nations involved—including most of Europe — to act according to Christian principles.

More pragmatically, in 1814 Russia, Britain, Austria, and Prussia had formed the Quadruple Alliance.

The allies create an international system to maintain the territorial status quo and prevent the resurgence of an expansionist France.

The Quadruple Alliance, confirmed by a number of international conferences, ensures Russia's influence in Europe.

East Central Europe (1804–1815 CE): Napoleonic Wars, Confederation of the Rhine, and the Congress of Vienna

Between 1804 and 1815 CE, East Central Europe—encompassing modern-day Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and territories within eastern Germany and Austria east of 10°E and north of the defined boundary—experienced profound geopolitical upheavals shaped by the dramatic military campaigns of Napoleon Bonaparte, the dismantling and restructuring of the Holy Roman Empire, and the diplomatic settlements culminating in the pivotal Congress of Vienna. This era witnessed dramatic territorial realignments, the rise of national consciousness, intensified military conflicts, and diplomatic negotiations that would shape the region’s political landscape for generations to come.

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Political and Military Developments

Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire (1806)

• Following decisive defeats by French forces, Austrian Emperor Francis II formally dissolved the millennium-old Holy Roman Empire in 1806, proclaiming himself Francis I of Austria, ruler of the newly established Austrian Empire (1804–1867).

• This marked a significant historical turning point, ending centuries of imperial continuity and reshaping regional governance.

Confederation of the Rhine (1806–1813)

• Napoleon established the Confederation of the Rhine, an alliance of German states—including Saxony, Bavaria, and Thuringia—that withdrew allegiance from the Holy Roman Empire and pledged support to France.

• This French-aligned confederation fundamentally altered political dynamics, enabling considerable administrative, military, and social reforms across member states.

Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815)

• Following his victory over Prussia, Napoleon established the Duchy of Warsaw (1807) from Polish lands annexed during previous partitions, restoring limited Polish autonomy under Frederick Augustus I of Saxony.

• The duchy rekindled Polish national aspirations, significantly boosting Polish nationalism despite remaining largely under French political influence.

Austro-French Wars and Regional Conflict

• Austria repeatedly opposed Napoleon, notably during the War of the Third Coalition (1805) and the War of the Fifth Coalition (1809), suffering major defeats such as at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805) and Battle of Wagram (1809).

• These losses forced Austria into disadvantageous treaties, notably the Treaty of Pressburg (1805) and Treaty of Schönbrunn (1809), significantly curtailing Austrian power and territory.

German Campaign and Battle of Leipzig (1813)

• The pivotal Battle of Leipzig (1813)—the largest European battle before World War I—saw a decisive coalition victory against Napoleon’s forces.

• Known as the Battle of the Nations, this engagement brought immense devastation but decisively weakened Napoleonic authority across East Central Europe.

Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)

• Convened to reshape Europe post-Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna restored political stability and established a new European balance of power:

  • Poland’s autonomy was largely curtailed as much of the Duchy of Warsaw became the Russian-controlled Congress Poland.

  • Prussia regained significant territory in Poland and parts of Saxony, greatly enhancing its strength.

  • Austria reasserted control over northern Italy, Dalmatia, Galicia, and territories across East Central Europe, stabilizing its influence for decades.

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Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Disruption and Reorganization

• Constant warfare severely disrupted regional economies, especially agricultural production and urban trade networks, necessitating substantial post-war recovery efforts.

• Subsequent reorganization under post-Vienna settlements fostered renewed economic stability and growth, particularly through infrastructure improvements and new trade regulations.

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Cultural and Artistic Developments

Romantic Nationalism and Cultural Awakening

• The Napoleonic era stimulated significant nationalist sentiment, particularly evident in Polish, Czech, and Hungarian territories, where literature, poetry, and music celebrated national heritage and aspirations.

• Composers such as Fryderyk Chopin (Polish), writers like Ferenc Kazinczy (Hungarian), and poets such as František Palacký (Czech) emerged as key cultural figures articulating national identity.

Educational Reforms and Enlightenment Influences

• Napoleon’s administrative reforms introduced significant educational modernization in German states, enhancing literacy, science, and secular scholarship—legacies enduring beyond Napoleonic rule.

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Settlement and Urban Development

Urban Devastation and Post-War Reconstruction

• Cities such as Leipzig, Vienna, and Warsaw experienced substantial wartime damage, prompting extensive reconstruction and urban redevelopment after 1815.

• Post-war infrastructure projects significantly reshaped urban planning, focusing on military defensibility and economic revitalization.

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Social and Religious Developments

Rise of National Consciousness and Social Tensions

• Wartime upheavals intensified nationalist sentiment among diverse populations, fueling future revolutionary aspirations, especially among Poles, Hungarians, and Czechs.

• Social tensions heightened between traditional aristocratic elites and increasingly influential middle classes, who demanded greater political participation and national representation.

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Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era 1804–1815 CE proved pivotal in shaping modern East Central Europe, fundamentally altering its geopolitical structure. The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, creation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the Duchy of Warsaw, and the landmark Congress of Vienna profoundly redefined political boundaries, territorial sovereignty, and national identities. Rising nationalism, stimulated by Napoleonic reforms and revolutionary ideals, set the stage for significant political and social upheaval throughout the 19th century. These developments established enduring frameworks that shaped the region’s subsequent historical evolution, driving forward nationalist movements, revolutions, and further European integration.

Momentous European political and intellectual movements at the turn of the nineteenth century, among their other effects, will keep the "Polish Question" on the agenda of international issues needing resolution.

Most immediately, Napoleon Bonaparte has established a new empire in France in 1804 following that country's revolution.

Napoleon's attempts to build and expand his empire keep Europe at war for the next decade and bring him into conflict with the same East European powers that had beleaguered Poland in the last decades of the previous century.

An alliance of convenience is the natural result of this situation.

Volunteer Polish legions attach themselves to Bonaparte's armies, hoping that in return the emperor will allow an independent Poland to reappear out of his conquests.

Although Napoleon promises more than he ever intends to deliver to the Polish cause, in 1807 he creates a Duchy of Warsaw from Prussian territory that had been part of old Poland and is still inhabited by Poles.

Basically a French puppet, the duchy does enjoy some degree of self-government, and many Poles believe that further Napoleonic victories will bring restoration of the entire commonwealth.

The Napoleonic period, although brief, occupies an important place in Polish annals.

Much of the legend and symbolism of modern Polish patriotism derives from this period, including the conviction that Polish independence is a necessary element of a just and legitimate European order.

This conviction is simply expressed in a fighting slogan of the time, "for your freedom and ours."

Moreover, the appearance of the Duchy of Warsaw so soon after the partitions prove that the seemingly final historical death sentence delivered in 1795 had not necessarily been the end of the Polish nation.

Instead, many observers have come to believe that favorable circumstances will free Poland from foreign domination.

Europe has begun to feel the impact of momentous political and intellectual movements that, among their other effects, will keep the "Polish Question" on the agenda of international issues needing resolution.

Most immediately, Napoleon Bonaparte has established a new empire in France in 1804 following that country's revolution.

Napoleon's attempts to build and expand his empire keep Europe at war for the next decade and bring him into conflict with the same East European powers that had beleaguered Poland in the last decades of the previous century.

An alliance of convenience is the natural result of this situation.

Volunteer Polish legions attach themselves to Bonaparte's armies, hoping that in return the emperor will allow an independent Poland to reappear out of his conquests.

Although Napoleon promises more than he ever intends to deliver to the Polish cause, in 1807 he creates a Duchy of Warsaw from Prussian territory that had been part of old Poland and is still inhabited by Poles.

Basically a French puppet, the duchy does enjoy some degree of self-government, and many Poles believe that further Napoleonic victories will bring restoration of the entire commonwealth.

In 1809, under Jozef Poniatowski, nephew of Stanislaw II Augustus, the duchy reclaims the land taken by Austria in the second partition.

The Russian army occupies the duchy as it chases Napoleon out of Russia in 1813, however, and Polish expectations end with the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815.

In the subsequent peace settlement of the Congress of Vienna, the victorious Austrians and Prussians sweep away the Duchy of Warsaw and reconfirm most of the terms of the final partition of Poland.

Austria and Prussia maintain an uneasy truce with France after the Treaties of Tilsit, as do the Kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden.

France receives from Prussia all her holdings west of the Elbe, the newly annexed Polish Provinces and the City of Danzig.

The Polish provinces became a French client-state, the Duchy of Warsaw.