Upper East Asia (909 BCE – CE 819): Steppe Empires, Frontier Kingdoms, and Transcontinental Corridors

Geographic and Environmental Context

Upper East Asia includes Mongolia and the parts of western China comprising Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, and western Heilongjiang.

• This is a region of vast steppe and desert basins, high mountain ranges such as the Altai, Kunlun, and Himalayas, and the high plateau of Tibet.

• Key river systems include the upper Yellow River, Tarim, and Amu Darya headwaters, while oases along the Tarim Basin edge sustain agriculture in otherwise arid landscapes.

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Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The region’s continental climate brought cold, dry winters and short, warm summers in the steppe, and harsh alpine conditions in the plateau.

• Rainfall was scarce in lowland deserts but more abundant in mountain foothills and river valleys.

• Climatic fluctuations could expand or contract pastureland, influencing nomadic migrations and trade.

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Societies and Political Developments

• Nomadic confederations such as the Xiongnu, Xianbei, and Türkic Khaganates rose to prominence, controlling steppe trade and threatening or allying with Chinese dynasties.

• The Tibetan Plateau saw the emergence of the Tubo (Tibetan) Empire, which at its height in the 7th–9th centuries CE contested influence in Central Asia and the Himalayas.

• Oasis states like Khotan and Turpan thrived as Silk Road hubs, balancing allegiance between steppe powers and Chinese dynasties.

• Semi-sedentary agricultural communities persisted in fertile river valleys, often under the control of nomadic elites.

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Economy and Trade

• Pastoral nomadism centered on horses, sheep, goats, cattle, and camels, with seasonal migration between summer and winter pastures.

• Oases supported agriculture—wheat, barley, millet, grapes, and melons—and served as caravan rest points.

• Trade along the Silk Road moved silk, jade, and ceramics westward, and glassware, precious metals, and textiles eastward.

• Control of trade routes brought wealth to steppe and oasis states alike.

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Subsistence and Technology

• Nomadic societies excelled in mounted warfare, metalworking, and portable felt tent (yurt/ger) architecture.

• Irrigation systems in oases allowed intensive farming despite aridity.

• Camel caravans made long-distance trade possible across deserts and mountain passes.

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Movement and Interaction Corridors

• The Silk Road and its northern branches connected China with Central Asia, Persia, and the Mediterranean.

• Mountain passes in the Altai, Tian Shan, and Kunlun ranges acted as strategic gateways.

• Rivers such as the upper Yellow and Tarim provided local transport and irrigation sources.

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Belief and Symbolism

• Religious traditions included shamanism, Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, and Zoroastrian influences.

• The spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road left a legacy of cave temples, murals, and monasteries in oasis cities.

• Nomadic art featured animal motifs, emphasizing strength, mobility, and spiritual guardianship.

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Adaptation and Resilience

• Seasonal mobility ensured sustainable use of pastures.

• Alliances and tribute relationships with neighboring states provided stability and trade security.

• Oases acted as refuges in times of drought or political instability, enabling recovery and continuity.

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Long-Term Significance

By CE 819, Upper East Asia was a strategic bridge between China, Central Asia, and the Middle East—home to powerful steppe empires, thriving Silk Road towns, and enduring pastoral traditions that would continue to influence Eurasian history for centuries.

Maritime East Asia (45 BCE–99 CE): Dynastic Turmoil, Regional Influence, and Rebellions

Between 45 BCE and 99 CE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—experiences significant political upheavals, regional expansions, and continued cultural and technological advancements during the later Han dynasty.

Political Instability and Dynastic Change

The early first century CE is marked by dynastic turbulence, most notably during Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty. Major agrarian rebellions originating in modern Shandong and northern Jiangsu drain the Xin dynasty’s resources, eventually leading to Wang Mang’s overthrow. The Lülin rebellion elevates Liu Xuan (Emperor Gengshi) to briefly restore the Han dynasty. However, internal divisions soon see Gengshi replaced by the Chimei faction's puppet emperor, Liu Penzi, who himself falls due to administrative incompetence.

By 30 CE, the Eastern Han dynasty under Emperor Guangwu (Liu Xiu) reestablishes control, overcoming these rebellions and restoring a degree of central authority.

Expansion and Influence in Korea

Lelang (Nangnang), near present-day P'yongyang, becomes a significant center of Chinese governance, culture, industry, and commerce, maintaining its prominence for approximately four centuries. Its extensive influence draws Chinese immigrants and imposes tributary relationships on several Korean states south of the Han River, shaping regional civilization and governance.

The Korean Peninsula witnesses substantial agrarian development, notably through advanced rice agriculture and extensive irrigation systems. By the first three centuries CE, walled-town states cluster into three federations: Jinhan, Mahan, and Byeonhan, marking significant strides toward regional organization and agricultural efficiency.

Goguryeo and Han Relations

During the instability of Wang Mang’s rule, the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo exploits the turmoil, frequently raiding Han's Korean prefectures. It is not until 30 CE that Han authority is firmly restored, reasserting control over these border territories.

Xiongnu and Frontier Conflicts

Wang Mang's hostile policy toward the northern nomadic Xiongnu tribes culminates in significant frontier conflicts. By 50 CE, internal division splits the Xiongnu into the Han-allied Southern Xiongnu and the antagonistic Northern Xiongnu. The Northern Xiongnu seize control of the strategically important Tarim Basin in 63 CE, threatening Han’s crucial Hexi Corridor.

However, following their defeat in 91 CE, the Northern Xiongnu retreat into the Ili River valley, allowing the Xianbei nomads to occupy extensive territories from Manchuria to the Ili River, reshaping regional power dynamics.

Technological and Cultural Developments

This period sees continued advancements in mathematics and commerce. Notably, the influential Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (Jiu Zhang Suan Shu) documents the first known use of negative numbers, employing distinct color-coded counting rods to represent positive and negative values, and presenting sophisticated methods for solving simultaneous equations.

Peak and Decline under Emperor Zhang

The reign of Emperor Zhang (75–88 CE) is retrospectively regarded as the Eastern Han dynasty's zenith, characterized by administrative stability and cultural flourishing. However, subsequent emperors witness increasing eunuch interference in court politics, sparking violent power struggles between eunuchs and imperial consort clans, foreshadowing dynastic decline.

Legacy of the Age: Turbulence, Expansion, and Innovation

Thus, the age from 45 BCE to 99 CE is defined by significant political turbulence, territorial expansion, technological innovation, and sustained cultural influence. Despite internal strife, this era reinforces critical foundations for subsequent East Asian civilizations, shaping regional dynamics profoundly.

Major agrarian rebellion movements against Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty, initially active in the modern Shandong and northern Jiangsu region, eventually lead to Wang Mang's downfall by draining his resources; this allows the leader of the other movement (the Lülin), Liu Xuan (Emperor Gengshi) to overthrow Wang and temporarily establish an incarnation of the Han Dynasty under him.

Chimei forces eventually overthrow Emperor Gengshi and place their own Han descendant puppet, Emperor Liu Penzi, on the throne, but briefly: the Chimei leaders' incompetence in ruling the territories under their control, which matches their brilliance on the battlefield, causes the people to rebel against them, forcing them to try to withdraw homeward.

They surrender to Liu Xiu's (Emperor Guangwu’s) newly established Eastern Han regime when he blocks their path.

The state of Goguryeo had been free to raid Han's Korean prefectures during the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang;  the Han dynasty does not reaffirm its control over the region until CE 30.

The rebellion led by the Trung Sisters of Vietnam is crushed after a few years.

Wang Mang had renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who are estranged from Han until their leader, a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin, submits to Han as a tributary vassal in 50.

This creates two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by a Han ally, and the Northern Xiongnu led by a Han enemy.

During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, Han had lost control over the Tarim Basin, which is conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in 63 and used as a base to invade Han's Hexi Corridor in Gansu.

After the Northern Xiongnu defeat and flight into the Ili River valley in 91, the nomadic Xianbei occupy the area from the borders of the Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the Wusun people.

The reign of Emperor Zhang, from 75–88, will come to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house.

Subsequent reigns will be increasingly marked by eunuch intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial consort clans.

The Xiongnu finally had been driven back into their homeland by the Chinese in CE 48, but within ten years the Xianbei (or Hsien-pei in Wade-Giles) had moved (apparently from the north or northwest) into the region vacated by the Xiongnu.

The Xianbei are the northern branch of the Donghu (or Tung Hu, the Eastern Hu), a proto-Tungus group mentioned in Chinese histories as existing as early as the fourth century BC E.

The language of the Donghu, like that of the Xiongnu, is unknown to modern scholars.

The Donghu had been among the first peoples conquered by the Xiongnu.

Once the Xiongnu state weakens, however, the Donghu rebel.

Emperor Guangwu has to deal with periodic minor battles against the Xiongnu to the north.

There are however no major wars with Xiongnu throughout his reign, but because of raids by Xiongnu, Wuhuan, and Xianbei, the northern prefectures nevertheless become largely depopulated, as the people suffer great casualties and also flee to more southerly lands.

Many Xiyu (modern Xinjiang and former Soviet Central Asia) kingdoms, suffering in 46 under the hegemony of one of the kingdoms, Shache (Yarkand), petition Emperor Guangwu to again reestablish the Western Han post of Governor of Xiyu.

Emperor Guangwu declines, stating that his empire is so lacking in strength at this time that he cannot expend efforts to protect Xiyu kingdoms.

The Xiyu kingdoms in response submit to the Xiongnu.

Two major subdivisions of the Donghu had developed by the first century: the Xianbei in the north and the Wuhuan in the south.

The Xianbei, who by the second century CE are attacking Chinese farms south of the Great Wall, establish an empire, which, although short-lived, gives rise to numerous tribal states along the Chinese frontier.

Among these states is that of the Tuoba (T'o-pa in Wade-Giles), a subgroup of the Xianbei, in modern China's Shanxi Province.

The Wuhuan also are prominent in the second century, but they disappear thereafter; possibly they are absorbed in the Xianbei western expansion.

The Xianbei and the Wuhuan use mounted archers in warfare, and they have only temporary war leaders instead of hereditary chiefs.

Agriculture, rather than full-scale nomadism, is the basis of their economy.

In the sixth century CE., the Wuhuan will be driven out of Inner Asia into the Russian steppe.

Emperor Ān had in 120 named his only son, Prince Bǎo, crown prince.

Empress Dowager Deng dies in 121, and An, at the age of 27, finally has the reins of the imperial administration.

He posthumously honores his father Prince Qing as Emperor Xiaode and his mother Consort Zuǒ as Empress Xiaode; his paternal grandmother Consort Song as Empress Jingyin; and his stepmother Consort Gěng with the unique title of "Grand Consort of Gānlíng" (Gānlíng being Prince Qing's tomb) -- a title inferior to his mother's, even though Consort Gěng was his father's wife.

He, however, was close to her and her brother Gěng Bǎo, and he quickly makes his stepuncle a powerful official in his administration.

Initially, Ān continued to follow the Empress Dowager's policies, including leaving members of her clan in important advisorial positions.

However, his own close circle of associates, including Jiang, Li, Wang, and Empress Yan, are ready to act.

Late in 121, he strips members of the Deng clan of their posts and fiefs, and many of them commit suicide, probably under duress.

Later, he relents and allows some of the survivors to return, but by that time the Deng clan has been decimated.

In 121, there are again Qiang and Xianbei rebellions, which will continue to plague the emperor for the rest of his reign.

The only border where there are Hàn accomplishments during Ān's reign is on the northwestern front—the Xiyu (modern Xinjiang and former Soviet central Asia)—where Ban Chao's son Ban Yong is able to reestablish Hàn suzerainty over a number of kingdoms.

The great Han general Ban Chao had written a request to the Emperor in 100 CE, saying, among other things: "I have taken care to send my son (Ban) Yong to enter the frontier following porters with presents, and thus, I will arrange things so that (Ban) Yong sees the Middle Territories [usually referred to as the 'Western Regions'—mainly the kingdoms in and around the Tarim Basin] with his own eyes while I am still alive." (From the Hou Hanshu (Book of the Later Han), Chapter 77 [sometimes given as Chapter 47], translated and adapted by E. Chavannes.).

The Western Regions in modern Xinjiang province in 107 CE had rebelled against Chinese rule.

Ban Yong had been appointed as a major and, with his elder brother, Ban Xiong, had gone via Dunhuang to meet up with the Protector General of the Western Regions, Ren Shang (?-119 CE), who had replaced Ban Chao as Protector General in 102 CE.

The Chinese had been forced to retreat and, following this, there have been no Chinese functionaries in the Western Regions for more than ten years.

Emperor An in 123 CE gives Ban Yong the title of 'Senior Clerk of the Western Regions' so that he can lead five hundred freed convicts west to garrison Liuzhong (Lukchun, in the southern Turpan Basin).

Ban Yong afterward conquers and pacifies Turpan and …

…Jimasa (in modern Jimsar County).