Oman strengthens its hold on the Muslim cities of East Africa.

These cities had been established by Omani traders in the tenth and eleventh centuries, but their connection to Oman had grown somewhat tenuous.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, the Al Said reassert Omani authority in the area.

Said bin Sultan (1806-56) encourages Omanis to settle in Zanzibar, an island off the African coast that had retained strong connections with Oman, and, from Zanzibar, he sends expeditions to take over several cities on the mainland.

The Omani sultanate's fortunes reverse with the British abolition of the slave trade.

The economy collapses, and many Omani families migrate to Zanzibar.

The population of Muscat falls from fifty-five thousand to eight thousand between the 1850s and 1870s.

Wahhabi attacks and tribal unrest in the mountains continue to threaten the equilibrium of the Omani sultanate, but Sa'id keeps them in check with British aid.

In 1854, out of gratitude for such support, Sa'id gives Great Britain the five Khuriya Muriya Islands of the Arabian Sea, forty kilometers off the southeastern coast of the Omani sultanate.

The Al Sa'id can not agree on a successor to Said bin Suktan, who dies at sea on October 19, 1856.

Therefore, Oman's British protectors act, dividing the Al Bu Sa'idi empire between Sa'id's two sons: Oman proper comes under the rule of Thuwaini ibn Sa'id Al Sa'id, while Zanzibar, together with other Omani possessions in East Africa, goes to Majid ibn Sa'id Al Sa'id.

Thuwaini, with a weakened merchant fleet and no East African revenues, is left with little support.

Because of the different centers of power, the country becomes popularly known as Muscat and Oman.

The Arab nation of Zanzibar develops a "special relationship" with Britain after the Great Power mediates the separation of Zanzibar from the Omanis in 1861.

The sultanate of Zanzibar controls the coastal regions of modern Tanzania and Kenya.

Bunyoro also finds itself threatened from the north by Egyptian-sponsored agents who seek ivory and slaves but who, unlike the Arab traders from Zanzibar, are also promoting foreign conquest.

Khedive Ismail of Egypt aspires to build an empire on the Upper Nile; by the 1870s, his motley band of ivory traders and slave raiders has reached the frontiers of Bunyoro.

The khedive sends a British explorer, Samuel Baker, to raise the Egyptian flag over Bunyoro.

The Banyoro (people of Bunyoro) resist this attempt, and Baker has to fight a desperate battle to secure his retreat.

Baker regards the resistance as an act of treachery, and he denounces the Banyoro in a book that is widely read in Britain.

Later British empire builders will arrive in Uganda with a predisposition against Bunyoro, which eventually will cost the kingdom half its territory until the "lost counties" are restored to Bunyoro after independence.

Farther north, the Acholi respond more favorably to the Egyptian demand for ivory.

They are already famous hunters and quickly acquire guns in return for tusks.

The guns permit the Acholi to retain their independence but alter the balance of power within Acholi territory, which for the first time experiences unequal distribution of wealth based on control of firearms.

Ivory has been a staple trade item from the East Africa coast since before the Christian era, but growing world demand in the nineteenth century, together with the provision of increasingly efficient firearms to hunters, creates a moving "ivory frontier" as elephant herds near the coast are nearly exterminated.

Leading large caravans financed by Indian moneylenders, coastal Arab traders based on Zanzibar (which will unite with Tanganyika in 1964 to form Tanzania) had reached Lake Victoria by 1844

One trader, Ahmad bin Ibrahim, had introduced Buganda's kabaka to the advantages of foreign trade: the acquisition of imported cloth and, more important, guns and gunpowder.

Ibrahim also introduced the religion of Islam, but the kabaka was more interested in guns.

By the 1860s, Buganda had become the destination of ever more caravans, and the kabaka and his chiefs have begun to dress in cloth called mericani, which is woven in Massachusetts and carried to Zanzibar by American traders.

It is judged finer in quality than European or Indian cloth, and increasing numbers of ivory tusks are collected to pay for it.

Bunyoro seeks to attract foreign trade as well, in an effort to keep up with Buganda in the burgeoning arms race.

Sayyid Majid bin Said Al-Busaid’s marriage has produced only one daughter, Sayyida Khanfora bint Majid (who will marry her cousin, the seventh Sultan).

As a consequence, Majid is succeeded as Sultan of Zanzibar in 1870 by his brother Barghash bin Said.

Majid bin Said had become Sultan of Zanzibar and Oman on the death of his father, Sayyid Said bin Sultan, but his accession had been contested.

Following the struggle over the accession to the position of Sultan of Oman, Zanzibar and Oman had been divided into two separate principalities, with Majid ruling Zanzibar and his older brother Thuwaini ruling Oman.

The sultans have developed an economy of trade and cash crops in the Zanzibar Archipelago with a ruling Arab elite.

Ivory is a major trade good.

The archipelago, also known as the Spice Islands, is famous worldwide for its cloves and other spices, and plantations are developed to grow them.

The archipelago's commerce gradually falls into the hands of traders from the Indian subcontinent, whom Said bin Sultan had encouraged to settle on the islands.

During his fourteen-year reign as sultan, Majid has consolidated his power around the East African slave trade.

Malindi in Zanzibar City is East Africa's main port for the slave market between Africa and Asia (including the Middle East), and in the mid-nineteenth century as many as fifty thousand slaves have passed annually through the port.

Many are captives of Tippu Tib, a notorious Arab slave trader and ivory merchant.

Tib leads huge expeditions, some four thousand strong, into the African interior, where chiefs sell him their villagers for next to nothing.

These Tib uses to caravan ivory back to Zanzibar, then sells them in the slave market for large profits.

Tib has become one of the wealthiest men in Zanzibar, the owner of multiple plantations and ten thousand slaves. (Swahili Coast: East Africa's Ancient Crossroads", in a "Did You Know?" sidebar authored by Christy Ullrich, National Geographic)

Barghash bin Said claims to have helped abolish the slave trade in Zanzibar, signing an agreement with Britain in 1873, prohibiting slave trade in his kingdom, and closing the great slave market in Mkunazini.

The Middle East: 1876–1887 CE

Ottoman Decline and International Competition

Between 1876 and 1887, the Ottoman Empire faces intensified internal strife and international pressure. The death of reformer Sultan Abdülaziz in 1876 is followed by short-lived reigns, ultimately bringing Abdul Hamid II to power. Abdul Hamid initially promises constitutional reform and establishes a parliament in 1876; however, he suspends it in 1878, inaugurating an era of increased centralization and autocratic governance. Internationally, the empire endures significant territorial losses following the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), finalized by the Treaty of Berlin (1878), diminishing its European territories and influence. The treaty cedes the territories of Ardahan, Batum, and Kars to Russia, while the sultan guarantees increased security for Christian subjects.

Reforms, Unrest, and Intellectual Growth in Lebanon

Lebanon continues to benefit from relative stability under the Mutasarrifate system. Nonetheless, religious and political tensions beneath the surface remain sensitive to external influences, particularly French and British interference. Educational and cultural institutions founded previously flourish significantly, highlighted by the founding of the American University of Beirut (1866) and St. Joseph’s University (1875), which become central to Lebanon's intellectual renaissance. An intellectual guild stimulates a revival of Arabic literature, fostering numerous publications and an active press. The harsh rule of Abdul Hamid II prompts increased clandestine political activity among both Christian and Muslim Arab nationalists in Beirut and Damascus. This period sees the crystallization of differing political visions: some Maronites advocate secession fearing pan-Islamic policies; Greek Orthodox Christians support an independent Syria with Lebanon as an autonomous province; Sunni Muslims generally prefer maintaining ties with the Ottoman caliphate; while Druze and Shia groups tend toward independence or status quo.

Internal Struggles in the Al Saud Domain

In Arabia, continued internal strife among the Al Saud family weakens central authority after the death of Faisal ibn Turki. Conflicts among Faisal’s sons—Abd Allah, Abd ar Rahman, and Saud—lead to intermittent control and further instability in Riyadh. These internal divisions challenge consistent authority, though alliances such as those with the influential Al Rashid family in Jabal Shammar remain crucial.

Qajar Iran: Concessions and Foreign Domination

Persia (Iran) under Naser ad-Din Shah further cedes sovereignty due to escalating pressure from British and Russian interests. Russian territorial gains in Central Asia solidify, and Britain extends its economic dominance. Increasingly unpopular economic concessions to foreigners provoke internal discontent. Reformist Persian officials like Malkam Khan and Prime Minister Mirza Hosain Khan Moshir od Dowleh advocate administrative, educational, and infrastructural reforms, emphasizing learning from advanced European states. However, resistance from bureaucratic and clerical factions hampers significant progress, laying foundations for later nationalist movements.

British Dominance and Maritime Prosperity in Oman

Under British oversight, Oman enjoys stability and maritime prosperity. The division between Muscat and Oman and Zanzibar functions effectively under British protection, facilitating regional commerce. Maritime truces significantly reduce piracy, ensuring the Persian Gulf remains a crucial and safe commercial route connecting Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Consolidation and Growth in the Persian Gulf

Qatar and Abu Dhabi solidify their respective positions under the rule of the Al Thani and Al Nahyan families, supported by continued British maritime protections. Qatar’s alignment with Wahhabi ideology distinguishes it from neighboring emirates. Economic prosperity from pearling and trade reinforces local autonomy, laying groundwork for future nation-building.

Modernization and Socioeconomic Shifts in Iraq

In Iraq, Ottoman reforms initiated by Midhat Pasha continue despite his removal. Infrastructure projects, including expanded telegraph networks, improved roads, and river transportation, integrate Iraq deeper into the global economy. The TAPU land laws foster an empowered class of wealthy sheikhs and landlords, significantly shifting tribal dynamics. Urban centers benefit from an influential educated class, which grows as secular education replaces traditional Islamic schooling. Increased Western presence, marked by the establishment of consulates and commercial advancements like steamboats and the Suez Canal, further integrates Iraq economically with Europe.

Rising National Consciousness in the Caucasus

Under Russian control, Armenia and Georgia experience intensified nationalist movements. Armenians develop robust national identity through educational and cultural revitalization, despite harsher Ottoman rule in Anatolian territories. Armenian appeals at the Congress of Berlin (1878) internationalize the "Armenian question," attracting attention from Russia and Britain. Georgian society faces intensified Russification, triggering nationalist resistance. The declining Georgian nobility leads to increased economic power for the Armenian merchant class, reshaping societal dynamics.

Legacy of the Era

From 1876 to 1887, the Middle East encounters profound transformations marked by Ottoman decline, Persian vulnerability, and increased British and Russian influence. Lebanon thrives culturally despite political tensions; the Al Saud face ongoing internal challenges; Oman and Persian Gulf emirates prosper under British oversight; Iraq modernizes economically and socially; and the Caucasus continues its path toward strengthened national identities. These shifts significantly influence the region’s subsequent political, cultural, and economic developments.