The Founding of The Hague and the Construction of Its Initial Castle (1248 CE)

In 1248, Count William II of Holland, who was also King of the Romans, ordered the construction of a castle at The Hague (Den Haag in Dutch). Originally a hunting preserve for the Counts of Holland, the site was known as “the count’s enclosure” or “hedge”, from which its Dutch name (’s-Gravenhage, meaning "The Count's Hedge") is derived.

Origins and Purpose of the Castle

• The castle was built as a residence for the Counts of Holland, marking The Hague’s transformation from a hunting retreat into an administrative and political center.
• Count William II, intending to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor, envisioned the castle as a grand seat of power, though he died in battle in 1256 before completing his ambitions.
• The structure served as the foundation for what would later become the Binnenhof, the political heart of the Netherlands.

Legacy of the 1248 Castle and The Hague’s Growth

• The Hague never received formal city rights, but it grew into the political capital of the County of Holland.
• The Binnenhof, originally part of William II’s medieval castle complex, later became the center of Dutch government.
• The city evolved into the seat of the Dutch government and monarchy, despite Amsterdam being the official capital.

The construction of the initial castle at The Hague in 1248 marked the beginning of its rise as one of the most important political centers in Dutch history, a role it continues to hold today as the seat of the Dutch government and the International Court of Justice.

...'s-Gravenhage (The Hague), fostering their growth into key centers of commerce, governance, and administration.

In 1248, William commissioned the construction of a castle in 's-Gravenhage. This fortress—intended as a hunting lodge and administrative seat—became the nucleus of what would later develop into The Hague, the future political capital of the Netherlands. Over time, the site evolved into the Binnenhof, which remains the heart of Dutch government to this day.

William’s city grants and infrastructure projects contributed to the urbanization and economic development of Holland, reinforcing its position as a commercial and political hub in the region. His policies helped lay the groundwork for the later emergence of Dutch autonomy in the late medieval and early modern periods.

Speculum Humanae Salvationis and the Advent of Printing (1470–1475)

The Speculum Humanae Salvationis (Mirror of Human Salvation), an anonymous, richly illustrated Latin theological text originally composed as an illuminated manuscript in the early fourteenth century, became a bestseller across Europe due to its accessible content and vivid imagery. With the spread of printing technology in the fifteenth century, this beloved medieval text experienced a remarkable second life in both blockbook and incunabulum editions, profoundly impacting the development of book production in late medieval Atlantic West Europe.

Blockbook Editions: Innovations and Anomalies (1470–1475)

Between roughly 1470 and 1475, the Speculum appeared in four significant blockbook editions—two in Latin and two in Dutch. Uniquely, these editions combined woodblock illustrations, produced via the traditional method of hand-rubbed impressions, with printed text pages set in movable type, marking an innovative moment in early printing. Notably, one eccentric edition even contained twenty pages whose textual content was entirely carved as woodcuts, directly traced from another movable-type edition. This strikingly unusual blending of woodcut and typographic printing techniques underscores the experimental, hybrid nature of early printing technology and book production practices.

According to the scholar Walter Hind (An Introduction to a History of Woodcut, 1963), these intriguing blockbook editions likely originated in Holland, reflecting the Netherlands' leading role in the early production of printed illustrated books. Additionally, evidence suggests that the Prohemium (introduction) was occasionally sold separately as a pamphlet, specifically marketed toward "poor preachers" unable to purchase the full volume, further illustrating the work’s wide-ranging appeal and adaptability (Wilson & Wilson, A Medieval Mirror, 1984).

Incunabulum Editions: Early Printed Books (1473–1500)

The immense popularity of the Speculum during the early era of printing is demonstrated by sixteen incunabulum editions produced by 1500, from at least eleven different presses across Europe. Unlike blockbooks, these editions predominantly utilized a printing press to simultaneously produce text and woodcut images, though a few editions employed separate print runs for text and illustrations.

The first and most notable incunabulum edition appeared in 1473, crafted by renowned printer Günther Zainer of Augsburg, who specialized in illustrated popular works. Zainer’s edition, printed in both Latin and German, included newly composed metrical summaries for each chapter and is especially esteemed for its beauty, clarity, and quality, becoming a standard by which subsequent editions were measured.

Cultural and Economic Impact

The printed versions of the Speculum Humanae Salvationis transformed religious, educational, and artistic practices by significantly expanding the accessibility and circulation of religious knowledge and visual culture throughout Europe. The emergence of these hybrid blockbook editions in the Netherlands highlights the region’s critical role in early print culture, experimentation, and innovation. Additionally, the text's continued production and commercial success reveal broader economic patterns, including the rise of an international market for printed illustrated books and the growing role of urban centers as hubs for commercial printing and cultural exchange.

Long-Term Significance

The fifteenth-century editions of the Speculum exemplify a critical transition in book production, showcasing the dynamic intersection between medieval manuscript traditions and emerging Renaissance printing technologies. By embracing experimental printing methods, these editions bridged manuscript illumination and modern publishing, significantly shaping the aesthetic standards, textual accessibility, and distribution practices that defined early European book culture. The Speculum thus embodies the broader intellectual, technological, and cultural transformations occurring across late medieval Atlantic West Europe, marking a milestone in the history of European printing and visual communication.

The seven provinces of the Union of Utrecht declare themselves a republic in 1581.

The States-General renounce allegiance to William.

...the States-General, which now meet at The Hague in Holland and represent only the provinces in the Union of Utrecht, swiftly invest Maurice as stadholder (chief executive) in Holland and Zeeland.

The Dutch Revolt continues under the leadership of Maurice under the political guidance of Oldenbarnevelt.

The Spaniards are steadily overrunning Flanders and Brabant.

The Dutch, in their plight, had not immediately abandoned William's policy of seeking foreign assistance, but as Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England have both refused sovereignty over the country, the States-General in 1586 name Leicester as governor-general.

Robert Sidney, younger brother of Sir Philip Sidney and second son of Sir Henry Sidney, English lord deputy in Ireland, had been educated at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1585 entered Parliament, and from 1585 has fought against Spain in the Netherlands under Leicester, who is his uncle.

He is knighted in 1586.

Buys falls out of favor when, along with other members of the religiously tolerant urban aristocracy, he opposes Leicester in his idea of a strictly Calvinist state.

He is arrested in July by Calvinist democrats, with Leicester's connivance.

Imprisoned for six months, Buys fails to regain a position of power upon his release.

Leicester, like Anjou before him, endeavors to make himself absolute master of the country, relying on the support of popular Calvinism and of the outlying provinces that are jealous of Holland to create a strong centralized government under his authority.

Holland thwarts Leicester's efforts, which culminate in an attempted invasion of Holland from Utrecht in 1587.

Leicester has proven to be not only an incompetent commander but also a failure in his political role.

His policies, in violation of Elizabeth's instructions, and his arrogant manner have alienated the Dutch and result in his recall to England in 1587.

With Leicester's departure, the United Provinces put aside all efforts to obtain a foreign protectorate and stand forth as an independent state.

Count Maurice of Nassau, a son of William the Silent and Princess Anna of Saxon, only sixteen when his father was murdered in Delft in 1584, had soon taken over as stadtholder (Stadhouder), though this title was not inheritable (the monarchs of England and France had refused, and there simply was no one else to take the job).

Supported by Oldenbarnevelt, he had in 1585 become stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland, and in 1590 of Guelders, Overijssel and Utrecht

Appointed captain-general of the army in 1587, bypassing the Earl of Leicester, who had returned to England on hearing this news, Maurice has reorganized the army together with Willem Lodewijk, studied military history, strategy and tactics, mathematics and astronomy.

He will prove himself to be among the best strategists of his age.

Maurice, in “closing the garden” in 1597, has driven the Spanish from the territory of the seven United Provinces.

Meanwhile, however, the civil war in France had been drawing to a close.

The Dutch have viewed this with some trepidation, because though Henry IV is the winner, the end of hostilities after the Peace of Vervins of May, 1598 has freed the Army of Flanders again for operations in the Netherlands.

Soon after, Philip dies, and his will provides a new surprise.

It turns out that he has willed the Netherlands to his daughter Isabella and her husband Archduke Albert, who will henceforth reign as co-sovereigns.

This sovereignty is largely nominal as the Army of Flanders is to remain in the Netherlands, largely paid for by the new king of Spain, Philip III.

The King's cession of the Netherlands nevertheless makes it theoretically easier to pursue a compromise peace, as both the Archdukes, and the chief minister of the new king, the duke of Lerma, are less inflexible toward the Republic than Philip II had been.

Soon secret negotiations are started which, however, prove abortive because Spain insists on two points that are nonnegotiable to the Dutch: recognition of the sovereignty of the Archdukes (though they are ready to accept Maurice as their stadtholder in the Dutch provinces) and freedom of worship for Catholics in the north.

The Republic is too insecure internally (the loyalty of the recently conquered areas being in doubt) to accede on the latter point, while the first point would invalidate the entire Revolt.

The war therefore continues.

Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, who had served as a volunteer for the relief of Haarlem (1573) and again at Leiden (1574), had in 1576 obtained the important post of pensionary of Rotterdam, an office which carried with it official membership of the States of Holland.

In this capacity his industry, singular grasp of affairs, and persuasive powers of speech had speedily gained for him a position of influence.

He had been active in promoting the Union of Utrecht (1579) and the offer of the countship of Holland and Zeeland by William I, Prince of Orange (prevented by Williams death in 1584).

A fierce opponent of the policies of the Earl of Leicester, the governor‐general at the time, he had instead favored Maurice of Nassau, a son of William.

Leicester’s departure in 1587 had left the military power in the Netherlands to Maurice.

During the governorship of Leicester, Van Oldenbarnevelt had been the leader of the strenuous opposition offered by the States of Holland to the centralizing policy of the governor.

On March 16, 1586, van Oldenbarnevelt, in succession to Paulus Buys, had become Land's Advocate of Holland for the States of Holland, an office he will hold for thirty-two years.

This great office gives to a man of commanding ability and industry unbounded influence in a many-headed republic without any central executive authority.

Though nominally the servant of the States of Holland, he has made himself politically the personification of the province which bears more than half the entire charge of the union, and as its mouthpiece in the States-General he practically dominates that assembly.

In a brief period he had become entrusted with such large and far-reaching authority in all the details of administration, as to be virtually Prime minister of the Dutch republic.

During the two critical years which followed the withdrawal of Leicester, it had been the statesmanship of the Advocate which had kept the United Provinces from falling asunder through their own inherent separatist tendencies, and prevented them from becoming an easy conquest to the formidable army of Alexander of Parma.

Fortunately for the Netherlands, the attention of Philip II was at their time of greatest weakness riveted upon his contemplated invasion of England, and a respite had been afforded which enabled Oldenbarnevelt to supply the lack of any central organized government by gathering into his own hands the control of administrative affairs.

His task has been made the easier by the wholehearted support he has received from Maurice of Nassau, who, from 1589, has held the Stadholderate of five provinces, and is likewise Captain-General and Admiral of the Union.

The interests and ambitions of the two men have not clashed, for Maurice's thoughts are centered on the training and leadership of armies and he has no special capacity as a statesman or inclination for politics.

The first rift between them comes in 1600, when Maurice is forced against his will by the States-General, under the Advocate's influence, to undertake an expedition into Flanders.