The Middle East: 909–766 BCE

Assyrian Imperial Surge and Expansion

Beginning with Adad-nirari II (911–891 BCE), the Neo-Assyrian Empire rapidly expands, firmly establishing itself as a dominant regional power. By 904 BCE, Babylonia is subdued and reduced to vassalage, and strategic control is secured along the Khabur River. Adad-nirari's military successes lay a robust foundation for Assyria's extensive territorial ambitions.

Consolidation and Brutality under Ashurnasirpal II

Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BCE) aggressively expands Assyria westward, reaching the Mediterranean by 859 BCE and incorporating influential Phoenician cities. Ashurnasirpal II's administration is marked by brutal reprisals against rebels, including mass executions and mutilations, instilling fear to suppress dissent. His lavish new capital at Kalhu (Nimrud), featuring monumental palaces and relief sculptures, symbolically projects Assyrian power and authority.

Continued Expansion and Conflict under Shalmaneser III

Shalmaneser III (859–824 BCE) extends Assyria's dominance further, notably conquering the powerful Aramaean state of Bit-Adini and engaging a regional coalition led by Damascus. Despite temporary resistance, Shalmaneser III successfully enforces tribute from Phoenician cities, Israel, and Damascus. His reign also witnesses increasing military confrontations with the emerging northern kingdom of Urartu, a significant competitor based near Lake Van.

Internal Turmoil and Territorial Instability

Internal strife emerges toward the end of Shalmaneser III’s rule, culminating in a civil war (828–826 BCE) against his rebellious son, Ashurdaninpal. This turmoil weakens central authority, leading to territorial losses. His successor, Shamsi-Adad V (824–811 BCE), gradually stabilizes the empire, incorporating the strategically vital region of Chaldea. Under Adad-nirari III (811–783 BCE), aided initially by Queen Sammuramat (legendary Semiramis), Assyria reasserts dominance, notably reclaiming Damascus by 804 BCE.

Cultural and Linguistic Influences of the Aramaeans and Phoenicians

The Aramaeans, influential traders settled in Greater Syria, significantly shape regional commerce and culture. They simplify the Phoenician alphabet, spreading Aramaic as the dominant lingua franca across the Middle East, even becoming the official language of the later Persian Empire. Meanwhile, the Phoenicians, despite Assyrian dominance, maintain extensive trade networks and cultural resilience. Artifacts such as the sarcophagus of King Ahiram from Byblos illustrate a vibrant exchange of Assyrian, Egyptian, and Phoenician artistic styles.

Anatolian and Iranian Regional Powers

In Anatolia, the Phrygians, heirs to Hittite cultural traditions, revitalize regional prosperity from their capital at Gordium. They excel in metalworking, woodcarving, and textiles, significantly influencing regional trade and cultural exchange. Concurrently, the Mannaean state emerges around 850 BCE in northwestern Iran, characterized by fortified cities, advanced irrigation, and horse breeding, representing an important regional power.

Emergence and Rivalries of Urartu

In the north, the kingdom of Urartu solidifies under King Aramu (circa 860–843 BCE), becoming a persistent and formidable rival to Assyria. Urartu's strategic fortifications and sustained resistance mark significant geopolitical shifts, frequently clashing with Assyrian ambitions.

Innovations in Assyrian Military and Artistic Expression

Assyrian military advancements, particularly in cavalry tactics, significantly enhance their imperial capabilities. Artistic and architectural achievements, notably the iconic man-headed winged bulls and elaborate palace reliefs, symbolize imperial power and divine sanction, emphasizing the Neo-Assyrian Empire’s cultural sophistication.

Cyprus: Political Consolidation and Urbanization

Cyprus experiences considerable urban growth and political consolidation during this period, with significant centers like the kingdom of Salamis flourishing through extensive trade networks. Monumental "Royal" tombs underscore the island’s rising wealth and social complexity.

Decline and Instability under Shalmaneser IV

Shalmaneser IV (782–772 BCE) faces severe setbacks, culminating in his defeat and death in 772 BCE, triggering internal chaos and territorial losses. This period of instability underscores the challenges Assyria faces in maintaining its extensive empire amidst ongoing regional conflicts.

Thus, the era from 909 to 766 BCE encapsulates a profound and transformative phase in Middle Eastern history, marked by dynamic imperial expansion, significant cultural exchanges, geopolitical rivalries, and internal political struggles that shape the region for centuries.

Assyrian rule (875-608 BCE) deprives the Phoenician cities of their independence and prosperity and brings repeated, unsuccessful rebellions.

Urartu reemerges in Assyrian inscriptions in the ninth century BCE as a powerful northern rival.

The Assyrians’ chief adversaries, the Aramaeans, have now settled in Syria.

Under Shalmaneser III, Ashurbanipal’s son and successor, the Assyrians finally manage to conquer Bit-Adini (Beth-Eden), the most powerful Aramaean state on the upper Euphrates.

A short-lived coalition of Levantine and Syrian states, led by Damascus and including Israel, checks Assyria’s westward designs.

The history of Assyria proper is roughly divided into three periods, known as Old Assyrian, Middle Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian.

These terms are in wide use in Assyriology and roughly correspond to the Middle Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, respectively.

Beginning with the campaigns of Adad-nirari II from 911 BCE, Assyria again becomes a great power, a status it will maintain over the next three centuries.

Ashurbanipal has advanced Assyrian control to the Mediterranean and built a number of new towns.

The palaces, temples and other buildings raised by him bear witness to a considerable development of wealth, science, architecture and art.

People called Mannaeans live in Iran’s present Azerbaijan province in the second millennium BCE.

Their kingdom is situated east and south of the Lake Urmia, roughly centered around the present-day city of Orumiyeh in the Azerbaijan region of Iran.

Excavations that began in 1956 succeeded in uncovering the fortified city of Hasanlu, once thought to be a potential Mannaean site.

More recently, the site of Qalaichi (possibly ancient Izirtu/Zirta) has been linked to the Mannaeans based on a stela with this toponym found at the site.

The Mannaeans' kingdom begins to flourish around 850 BCE.

They are mainly a settled people, practicing irrigation and breeding cattle and horses.

Their capital is another fortified city, Izirtu (Zirta).

They have expanded by the 820s BCE to become the first large state to occupy this region since the Gutians, later followed by the unrelated Iranic peoples, the Medes and the Persians.

They have developed a prominent aristocracy as a ruling class, who somewhat limit the power of the king.

The region becomes contested ground beginning around 800 BCE between the people of Urartu, who build several forts on the territory of Mannaea, and Assyria.

Babylonia and the whole of southern Mesopotamia had come under Assyrian domination during Dynasty VIII.

In addition to this, hostile Aramean and Sutu tribes had ravaged much of the land during this dynasty, and the Chaldean tribes under Elamite protection had appropriated south eastern Mesopotamia for themselves until they were repressed by the Assyrians.

Assyria’s northern frontiers are pressed from the Caucasus by the Indo-European Scythians and from Western Iran by the Medes.

The Aramaean kingdoms are subjugated by Adad-nirari II, Ashurnasirpal II, and his son Shalmaneser III, who destroy many of the small tribes, and give control of Aramea and local trade and natural resources to the Assyrians.

The Aramaean populations in Assyria and Babylonia are gradually absorbed into the native populations.

The neo-Assyrian kings depict themselves as warlike heroes in their sculpted portraiture.

Man-headed winged bulls dominate Assyrian art and architecture, and elegant bas-reliefs in hard stone express the expanding Empire’s glories.

The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of horses (at this time mostly small) to carry heavy armor.

Cavalry techniques are an innovation of equestrian nomads of the Central Asian and Iranian steppe and pastoralist tribes such as the later Persian Parthians and Sarmatians.

The photograph at right shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BCE.

At this time, the men have no spurs, saddles, saddle cloths, or stirrups.

Fighting from the back of a horse is much more difficult than mere riding.

The cavalry acts in pairs; the reins of the mounted archer are controlled by his neighbor's hand.

Even at this early time, cavalry uses swords, shields, and bows.

The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist.

Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse.

Assyrian records of the age refer to the people of Urartu, a kingdom centered in eastern Turkey.

The name Urartu comes from Assyrian sources: the Assyrian king Shalmaneser I (1263–1234 BCE) recorded a campaign in which he subdued the entire territory of "Uruatri".

The Shalmaneser text uses the name Urartu to refer to a geographical region, not a kingdom, and names eight "lands" contained within Urartu (which at the time of the campaign were still disunited).

The kingdom's native name was Biainili, also spelt Biaineli, (from which is derived the Armenian toponym "Van"), but prior to the eighth century BCE, they also called their now united kingdom "Nairi".

Scholars believe that Urartu is an Akkadian variation of Ararat of the Old Testament: Mount Ararat, the famous Biblical mountain, is located in ancient Urartian territory, approximately 120 km north of its former capital.

Ararat also appears as the name of a kingdom in Jeremiah 51:27, mentioned together with Minni and Ashkenaz, three kingdoms called together against Babylon.

Near East (909–766 BCE): Consolidation, Conflict, and Cultural Flourishing

Nubian Expansion and Egyptian Shifts

During the late ninth and early eighth centuries BCE, Egypt experiences significant geopolitical transformations. Kashta, a Kushite king based in Napata, expands his influence northward into Upper Egypt, notably installing his daughter Amenirdis I as the prospective God's Wife of Amun in Thebes. This effectively legitimizes Nubian dominance, paving the way for his son Piye to consolidate Kushite power across Egypt around 747 BCE. Under Piye's rule, Egyptian cultural and religious traditions experience revitalization, with an increasing adoption of Nubian elements.

Israel, Judah, and Regional Rivalries

This period sees Israel and Judah embroiled in frequent conflicts, both internally and with neighboring states. Notably, the Mesha Stele, or Moabite Stone, crafted by King Mesha of Moab around 850 BCE, provides critical historical insights. This stele details Mesha’s rebellion against Israelite domination under the "House of Omri," referencing the Israelite god Yahweh and potentially the earliest extrabiblical mention of the "House of David." The kingdoms of Edom and Moab also rise prominently, intensifying regional dynamics, with Edom gaining significance through increased trade and mining activities.

Israel under Omri (c. 876–869 BCE) and his son Ahab (c. 869–850 BCE) emerges as a significant regional power, marked by extensive military campaigns, construction projects, and an influential Phoenician alliance forged through Ahab’s marriage to Jezebel, daughter of Ithbaal of Tyre and Sidon. The internal religious turmoil intensifies with the clash between Phoenician Baal worship and Hebrew monotheism, particularly under the prophets Elijah and Elisha.

Assyrian Dominance and Local Autonomy

The Assyrian Empire, under rulers such as Shalmaneser III and later Tiglath-Pileser III, exerts considerable influence over the Near East, frequently subduing and extracting tribute from kingdoms such as Israel and the city-states of Phoenicia. Despite periodic revolts by city-states like Tyre and regional leaders, Assyria largely maintains its dominance through military might and political coercion, reshaping the political landscape significantly.

Sabaean Ascendancy and Arabian Trade

To the south, the Sabaean Kingdom in southern Arabia (biblical Sheba), beginning around the tenth century BCE, becomes a vital trade nexus connecting Arabia, Syria, and Mesopotamia. Controlling major caravan routes and flourishing economically, the Sabaeans significantly influence commerce and cultural exchanges across the Near East.

Greek Expansion in Anatolia and Cyprus

The collapse of Mycenaean civilization and the subsequent Dorian invasion in mainland Greece prompt waves of Ionian and Dorian refugees to establish new settlements in Asia Minor. The Ionian coast flourishes culturally and commercially with prominent cities such as Phocaea, Ephesus, and Miletus. Concurrently, the Dorians establish influential cities like Halicarnassus and Knidos, integrating into regional power dynamics through leagues like the Dorian Hexapolis. Cyprus also emerges as a significant cultural and commercial hub, with a Phoenician colony established at Citium around 800 BCE, contributing to the island's complex demographic and cultural landscape.

Cultural and Linguistic Developments

The Hebrew alphabet, evolving from Phoenician script, is reflected in early texts like the Gezer Calendar (tenth century BCE), demonstrating early literacy and agricultural traditions among the Israelites. Concurrently, the Elohist (E) textual source emerges, emphasizing Israel's northern kingdom perspectives, portraying a less anthropomorphic deity, Elohim, and competing religious practices.

Legacy of the Age

This age marks a profound consolidation and conflict across the Near East, with regional powers negotiating their positions amidst shifting alliances and rivalries. The cultural and political developments—ranging from Nubian expansion in Egypt, Hebrew religious struggles, Assyrian dominance, Greek colonization in Anatolia, to burgeoning Arabian trade—lay essential foundations for the complex historical trajectories that continue to shape the region's future.

The Middle East, 909 to 898 BCE: Expansion of Assyrian Dominance

Rise and Consolidation under Adad-nirari II

The Middle East experiences a pivotal shift with the emergence and rapid consolidation of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, initiated by the reign of King Adad-nirari II in 911 BCE. Succeeding his father, Ashur-dan II, Adad-nirari II embarks on ambitious military campaigns, significantly extending Assyrian control over territories eastward and northward.

Military Campaigns and Regional Subjugation

Adad-nirari II secures crucial victories against neighboring rivals, notably subjugating prominent Aramaean settlements and city-states, including Kadmuh and Nisibin. These victories yield considerable treasure, bolstering the economic strength of Assyria and stabilizing the strategically significant Khabur River region. The empire strategically resettles populations from conquered areas, dispersing them to distant territories to reduce resistance and fortify Assyrian rule.

Linguistic and Cultural Developments

In this period, Aramaic is formally recognized alongside Akkadian as an official language, reflecting the diverse linguistic landscape and administrative needs of the expanding empire. This significant administrative reform facilitates effective governance across the vast and culturally varied Assyrian territories.

Subjugation of Babylonia

A major milestone during this era is Assyria's successful campaigns against its traditional southern rival, Babylonia. By 904 BCE, Babylonia is effectively reduced to vassal status, marking a decisive shift in regional power dynamics and affirming Assyrian supremacy.

Historical Documentation and Chronological Precision

Adad-nirari II’s ascension in 911 BCE is of particular historical importance because it represents one of the earliest precisely dateable events in ancient Middle Eastern history. Comprehensive eponym lists meticulously document Assyrian history from this period onward, providing a reliable chronological framework that greatly enhances scholarly understanding of regional events.

This foundational era of Assyrian power not only redefines the political and military landscapes of the Middle East but also establishes the empire as a lasting force that shapes regional history profoundly in subsequent centuries.