Crossing of the Rhine
Years: 405 - 405
A mixed group of barbarians that includes Vandals, Alans and Suebi crosses the Rhine into Gaul, thereby transgressing one of the Late Empire's most secure limines or boundaries, a climactic moment in the decline of the Roman Empire that initiates a wave of destruction of Roman cities and the collapse of Roman civic order in northern Gaul, and that occasions the rise of three usurpers in succession in the province of Britannia; hence the crossing of the Rhine is a marker date in the Migrations Period.The initial gathering of barbarians on the east bank of the Rhine has been interpreted as a banding of refugees from the Huns or the remnants of Radagaisus' defeated Goths, without direct evidence.
A frozen Rhine, making the crossing easier, is not attested by any contemporary, but was a plausible surmise of Edward Gibbon.
On the east bank, the mixed band of Vandals and Alans fight a raiding party of Franks.
The Vandal king Godigisel is killed, but the Alans come to the rescue of the Vandals, and once on the Roman side, they meet with no organized resistance.
Stilicho had depleted the garrisons in 402 to face Alaric in Italy.A roughly contemporary letter of Jerome, written from Bethlehem, gives a long list of the barbarian tribes involved, some of them, like Quadi and Sarmatians, drawn from history or literary tradition.
He lists the cities now known as Mainz, Worms, Rheims, Amiens, Arras, Thérouanne, Tournai, Speyer and Strasbourg as having been pillaged.
Jerome’s mention of Mainz first in a list of the cities devastated by the incursion is the sole support for the common assumption that the crossing of the unbridged Rhine was effected at Mainz.
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At the end of the Antiquity period, ancient Gaul is divided into several Germanic kingdoms and a remaining Gallo-Roman territory, known as the Kingdom of Soissons, also known as the Domain of Syagrius.
Simultaneously, Celtic Britons, fleeing the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, settle the western part of Armorica.
As a result, the Armorican peninsula will be renamed Brittany, Celtic culture is revived and independent petty kingdoms arise in this region.
The pagan Franks, from whom the ancient name of "Francie" is derived, originally settle the north part of Gaul, but under Clovis I conquer most of the other kingdoms in northern and central Gaul.
In 498, Clovis I is the first Germanic conqueror after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity, rather than Arianism; thus France is given the title "Eldest daughter of the Church" (French: La fille aînée de l'Église) by the papacy, and French kings will be called "the Most Christian Kings of France" (Rex Christianissimus).
The Franks embrace the Christian Gallo-Roman culture and ancient Gaul s eventually renamed Francia ("Land of the Franks").
The Germanic Franks adopt Romanic languages, except in northern Gaul where Roman settlements are less dense and where Germanic languages emerge.
Clovis makes Paris his capital and establishes the Merovingian dynasty, but his kingdom does not survive his death.
The Franks treat land purely as a private possession and divide it among their heirs, so four kingdoms emerge from Clovis's: Paris, Orléans, Soissons, and Rheims.
The Visigoths, following their sack of Rome in 410, eventually coexist peacefully with the Romans, farming and trading agricultural products and enslaved people for luxury goods.
They adopt many elements of Roman culture, some becoming literate in Latin.
The Western Roman Empire wields negligible military, political, or financial power by the time that the barbarian general Odoacer deposes the Emperor Romulus in 476, and has no effective control over the scattered Western domains that still describe themselves as Roman.
The Western Empire's legitimacy will last for centuries and its cultural influence remains today, but it will never have the strength to rise again.
Atlantic West Europe (388–531): From Roman Gaul to Frankish Dominance
Between 388 and 531, Atlantic West Europe—covering the regions of northern and central France, including Aquitaine, Burgundy, Alsace, the Low Countries, and the Franche-Comté—underwent profound transformations. This period marked the decline of Roman authority, the migration and settlement of Germanic peoples, the rise of powerful Frankish kingdoms, and the increasing influence of the Catholic Church.
Political and Military Transformations
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Late Roman Authority (388–410)
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Stability under Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395) gave way to political uncertainty following his death.
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The usurper Constantine III temporarily seized control of Gaul, leading to weakened Roman defenses and vulnerability to barbarian incursions.
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Barbarian Migrations and Kingdoms (411–450)
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Visigoths, Burgundians, and Franks established independent realms within former Roman territories.
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The Visigoths, granted territory as Roman foederati, expanded into Aquitaine and established Toulouse as their capital.
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The Burgundians established themselves along the Rhône Valley, creating a kingdom centered at Lyon.
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The Rise of the Merovingians (451–481)
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The Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (451), led by Roman general Aetius with Visigothic and Frankish allies, halted Attila the Hun’s westward advance.
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Merovingian Franks under Childeric I consolidated power around Tournai, laying the groundwork for Frankish dominance.
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Frankish Consolidation under Clovis (482–511)
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Clovis united the Frankish tribes, defeated Syagrius, the last Roman ruler in Gaul (486), and expanded his territory significantly.
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His conversion to Catholicism (c. 496) secured the support of the Gallo-Roman populace and the Catholic Church.
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The decisive defeat of the Visigoths at Vouillé (507) significantly expanded Frankish control into Aquitaine.
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Division and Expansion (512–531)
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Upon Clovis’s death in 511, his sons—Theuderic, Chlodomer, Childebert, and Chlothar—divided the Frankish kingdom, each ruling semi-autonomous territories.
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Continued Frankish expansion culminated in the conquest and integration of Burgundy by 534.
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Economic and Social Developments
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Decline and Transformation of Urban Life
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Roman urban centers deteriorated; trade networks weakened as imperial structures collapsed.
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Increasing ruralization occurred, with populations moving toward countryside estates and fortifications, heralding medieval rural feudal society.
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Shifts in Economic Foundations
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A transition from Roman monetary economy to more localized, agrarian economies took place, emphasizing landholdings and agricultural production.
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The foundation for medieval manorial systems was established as local elites consolidated rural power.
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Religious and Cultural Developments
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Growth of Ecclesiastical Authority
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Bishops, notably figures like Sidonius Apollinaris (bishop of Clermont), assumed greater civil and religious authority, managing civic affairs amid declining Roman administration.
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Councils, such as the Council of Agde (506), standardized ecclesiastical practices and reinforced Catholic dominance in the region.
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Spread and Consolidation of Catholicism
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The collapse of Arian Visigothic power in Gaul solidified Catholicism’s religious supremacy.
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Monasticism expanded, preserving classical texts and cultural traditions, laying foundations for medieval intellectual life.
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Legacy and Significance
By 531, Atlantic West Europe had fundamentally shifted from Roman governance to fragmented barbarian kingdoms and ultimately to consolidated Frankish rule under the Merovingians. Clovis's unification efforts and strategic religious alignment firmly established the Catholic Frankish kingdom as the predominant power, creating cultural and political legacies that defined medieval European history.
The Decline of the Roman Empire
By the late fourth and early fifth centuries, the Roman Empire stands in a state of terminal decline. The division of the empire into eastern and western halves in 395 CE—formalized upon the death of Theodosius I—has only deepened internal political strife, weakening Rome’s ability to resist barbarian incursions along the Danube and even into Italy itself.
The Strength of the East vs. the Weakness of the West
While Germanic tribes break through into the Balkans, they fail to establish permanent settlements there. The Eastern Roman emperors, prioritizing the defense of Constantinople, actively push these tribes westward, forcing them deeper into the Western Empire and exacerbating instability.
Despite political challenges, the Eastern Empire maintains relative stability and prosperity. Constantinople, benefiting from its Greek cultural heritage, emerges as the dominant symbol of civilization in the East. For much of its population—already accustomed to Greek language and traditions—the shift from a Latin Roman Empire to a more Hellenized Byzantine identity is seamless.
By contrast, the Western Empire is crumbling. Repeated barbarian invasions, coupled with rural depopulation, have crippled its economy and defenses. By 400 CE, many tenant farmers have been reduced to a serf-like status, bound to the land by economic necessity and social rigidity. Meanwhile, the Eastern Empire, benefiting from lucrative trade in spices, silk, and luxury goods, remains wealthy and resilient.
The Germanization of Rome
The progressive Germanization of the empire, particularly within the Roman army, is nearly complete. The Goths, like most Germanic tribes—with the notable exception of the Franks and Lombards—have converted to Arian Christianity, a doctrine the Catholic (Orthodox) Romans regard as dangerous heresy.
However, the Roman senatorial aristocracy, largely pacifist and still clinging to its classical traditions, views the warlike Germanic customs with suspicion and hostility. This growing resentment against Germanic leaders in high office fuels political instability in both the Eastern and Western Empires, leading to factionalism and periodic violence.
Yet, despite the tensions, Rome relies on Germanic tribes to defend its imperial frontiers. The Franks, for instance, are settled in Toxandria (modern Brabant) and tasked with guarding the empire’s northern borders—a foreshadowing of their future role as rulers of post-Roman Gaul.
The Weakness of the Western Emperor
The reigning Western Roman emperor, an inexperienced and feeble ruler, has inherited the throne from his father but lacks military expertise. His shortsighted political interventions and inability to command armies only deepen the empire’s crises, as generals struggle to hold the frontiers against an unrelenting tide of barbarian invasions.
Fearing a direct assault on Rome, he relocates the imperial court from Rome to Ravenna, a more defensible stronghold surrounded by marshlands and the sea. From his new capital, he watches as loyal generals suppress usurpers and internal revolts, rather than leading the defense himself.
Meanwhile, the Rhine frontier deteriorates, and the administrative center of Gaul is moved from Trier to Arelate(modern Arles), leaving the northern provinces increasingly vulnerable to Germanic incursions. The combination of military neglect, civil war, and external invasions accelerates the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, setting the stage for the fall of Rome itself in 476 CE.
The Sack of Rome and the Fall of an Empire
For fifteen years, an uneasy peace holds between the Visigoths and the Roman Empire, though tensions remain high. Clashes occasionally erupt between Alaric, the ambitious Visigothic leader, and the Germanic generals who wield real power in the Eastern and Western Roman armies.
The fragile balance collapses in 408 CE, when Honorius, the ineffective Western Roman emperor, orders the execution of Stilicho, his most capable general. In the aftermath, the Roman legions massacre the families of 30,000 barbarian soldiers serving in the imperial army, igniting Visigothic fury. This act of betrayal compels Alaric to declare full-scale war against Rome.
The Road to the Sack of Rome
Alaric initially suffers two defeats in Northern Italy, but he remains undeterred. He marches south and besieges Rome, forcing the city’s desperate leaders to negotiate a payoff to lift the siege. However, after being cheated by another faction within the Roman court, Alaric abandons diplomacy and shifts to a decisive military strategy.
Recognizing Rome’s strategic vulnerability, he captures Portus, the city's vital harbor on the Tiber, cutting off its food supply and forcing its gates open. On August 24, 410, Visigothic troops enter Rome through the Salarian Gate, unleashing a devastating three-day sack of the city.
The Shock of Rome’s Fall
Though Rome is no longer the official capital of the Western Roman Empire—the imperial court had relocated to Ravenna for its defensibility—its fall shakes the empire to its core. The city, long considered the eternal heart of Roman civilization, has not been breached by a foreign enemy in nearly 800 years. Its sack marks a symbolic rupture, signaling to contemporaries that the empire is no longer invulnerable.
The impact reverberates across the Mediterranean world. In the Eastern Empire, Saint Jerome laments: "The city that had conquered the world has itself been conquered." Meanwhile, pagans blame Christianity for Rome’s downfall, prompting Augustine of Hippo to pen The City of God, defending the Christian faith against accusations that abandoning the old gods had led to Rome’s ruin.
Though Alaric dies later in 410, his sack of Rome accelerates the decline of the Western Roman Empire, demonstrating that its military and political structures are collapsing under the weight of internal decay and external pressure.
The Great Invasion of 406 and the Collapse of Roman Defenses
By the early fifth century, the Huns' relentless expansion across Eastern Europe sets off a chain reaction, forcing Germanic and Iranian tribes westward into Roman territory. Among them, the Asdingi and Silingi Vandals, led by King Godigisel, seize the moment as Italy reels from the Visigothic threat, pushing into Roman lands.
Leaving their Upper Danube settlements, they are soon joined by the Alans and some Suebi, forming a vast migratory force. On December 31, 406, this coalition crosses the frozen Rhine at Mainz, launching a massive invasion of Gaul—an event that will permanently alter the fate of the Western Roman Empire.
The Devastation of Gaul and Hispania
The Vandals, Alans, and Suebi, soon followed by Burgundians and bands of Alemanni, sweep across Gaul, overwhelming the federated Franks and Alemanni stationed along the frontiers. The Roman defenses along the Rhine—already strained and undermanned—collapse under the weight of this onslaught.
After devastating northern and central Gaul, the invaders press southward into Hispania, tearing through Roman provinces that have long been integral to the empire’s economic and military stability. The collapse of Roman control in these regions marks a decisive turning point in the decline of the Western Empire.
The Empire’s Mortal Blow
By this time, the empire’s imperial defenses have deteriorated so severely that the Western emperor is forced to abandon Britain, informing its cities that they can no longer rely on Rome for military reinforcements. The Roman army withdraws, leaving the island vulnerable to Saxon, Pictish, and Irish incursions—an event that will eventually lead to the fragmentation of Roman Britain into isolated, competing kingdoms.
For the Western Roman Empire, the Great Invasion of 406 is a mortal wound from which it will never recover. Roman authorities prove incapable of repelling or destroying the invading forces, most of whom will eventually settle in Hispania and North Africa. At the same time, Rome fails to contain the movements of the Franks, Burgundians, and Visigoths in Gaul, further eroding imperial control.
The Role of Internal Disunity
A critical factor in Rome’s inability to resist these invasions is internal fragmentation. In the past, a unified empire, backed by a loyal population willing to make sacrifices, had successfully secured Rome’s borders. However, by the early fifth century, political divisions, power struggles, and economic decay have shattered Rome’s ability to muster the cohesion needed for effective defense.
As the empire weakens from within, its once-powerful legions—stretched thin, riddled with internal conflicts, and increasingly reliant on untrustworthy Germanic federates—prove incapable of withstanding the pressure of continuous invasions. With each successive incursion, the Western Empire’s grasp on its provinces weakens, leading inexorably toward its final dissolution.
Atlantic West Europe (400–411): Roman Collapse, Barbarian Migrations, and Regional Transformation
Between 400 and 411, Atlantic West Europe—including Roman Gaul (Aquitania, Gallia Belgica, Gallia Lugdunensis), Armorica (later Brittany), Britannia, and the Rhine frontier—faced profound upheaval, as Roman power rapidly disintegrated, barbarian invasions intensified, and the region descended into political fragmentation.
Political and Military Developments
Collapse of Roman Frontier (406)
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On December 31, 406, a massive confederation of barbarians—including Vandals, Suebi, and Alans—crossed the frozen Rhine into Gaul. This unprecedented breach shattered Roman defenses, permanently destabilizing Roman rule in the region.
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The invaders swiftly penetrated Gaul, devastating towns and countryside, triggering widespread fear and population dislocation.
Usurpation and Political Fragmentation
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Roman authority crumbled as regional commanders and elites struggled to respond effectively. In 407, Roman general Constantine III was proclaimed emperor by troops in Britain, quickly crossing to Gaul to assert authority.
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Constantine III attempted to stabilize Gaul but faced relentless internal rebellions, including challenges by rival usurpers such as Jovinus (411).
Withdrawal from Britannia (410)
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In 410, Honorius famously instructed the cities of Britannia to "look to their own defense," effectively marking Rome’s abandonment of Britain. This led to local power vacuums, internecine conflict, and vulnerability to Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) incursions.
Emergence of Localized Barbarian Kingdoms
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The Suebi, Alans, and Vandals established autonomous enclaves across Gaul, especially Aquitaine and the Loire valley.
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The Salian Franks, now settled in northeastern Gaul, expanded their territorial control along the lower Rhine region, establishing early Frankish political structures.
Economic and Social Developments
Urban Collapse and Ruralization
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The barbarian invasions accelerated the collapse of urban centers such as Trier, Reims, and Bordeaux, hastening population shifts from urban to rural settings.
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Villas were abandoned or fortified as self-sufficient rural enclaves, reflecting declining trade networks and monetary economy.
Population Displacement and Migration
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Massive disruptions, including population flight, contributed to internal migrations, notably the settlement of Romano-Britons into Armorica (Brittany), laying the foundations for the Breton identity.
Religious and Cultural Developments
Christianity as a Stabilizing Force
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Amidst societal collapse, the Christian Church gained prominence as a stabilizing institution. Bishops emerged as key political and spiritual leaders in the absence of Roman governance.
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Saints such as Honoratus of Arles (founded Lérins monastery in 410) and Victricius of Rouen strengthened the Church’s influence.
Decline of Paganism
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Pagan practices sharply declined, largely replaced by Christianity as the central cohesive cultural force, although pockets of resistance persisted in rural areas.
Key Figures
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Constantine III (usurper emperor, r.407–411): Briefly stabilized parts of Gaul before ultimate failure.
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Honorius (Western Roman Emperor, r.395–423): Incapable of effectively defending Gaul and Britain, precipitating Roman withdrawal.
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Honoratus of Arles (d.430): Influential monastic founder and spiritual leader who symbolized the growing power of Christian institutions.
Long-Term Significance
The period 400–411 marked a decisive turning point in Atlantic West Europe:
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The irreversible collapse of Roman authority paved the way for new barbarian polities, notably the Frankish and Visigothic kingdoms.
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Urban centers and economic structures severely weakened, accelerating regional fragmentation and ruralization.
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Christianity’s ascendancy provided crucial continuity amidst collapse, influencing future political and social structures profoundly.
This era initiated a transformation that defined the region's early medieval identity, shifting from imperial administration to localized political entities and cultures.
Radagaisus, having spent the winter in the Po Valley, is observed by Stilicho, who lacks sufficient strength to prepare an offensive against the invading German tribes.
The exact numbers of the migration are unknown, probably nearly one hundred thousand, including Alans, Burgundians, Goths, Vandals, Suebi, and other smaller tribes.
Radagaisus's army has had the run of northern Italy for at least six months while Stilicho mobilizes thirty numerii (about fifteen thousand men) from the Italian field army in response to the invasion.
A second contingent of Roman troops, possibly recalled from the Rhine frontier (leaving this sector dangerously weakened), complements the Italian forces.
In addition, they receive help from Gothic auxiliaries under Sarus and Hunnic forces under Uldin.
Stilicho recalls troops from Britannia and the depth of the crisis is shown when he urges all Roman soldiers to allow their personal slaves to fight beside them.
His forces, including Hun and Alan auxiliaries, may in the end have totaled rather less than fifteen thousand men.
Contemporary accounts number the invaders in the hundreds of thousands, though any such figure is highly improbable—unless these numbers include the Alans, Vandals, and Suebi who would, in four months’ time, invade Gaul in large numbers.
Radagaisus's own force probably consists of about 20,000 fighting men.
Many of the fighters are accompanied by their families and other noncombatants, meaning that the total size of Radagaisus's group may have approached 100,000.
They attack the bridgehead community of Florentia and blockade the city, where no less than a third of the Goth's troops and allies are killed.
After two months, Stilicho's army relieves the siege of Florentia as the city is approaching the point of surrender, sending a heavily guarded convoy of provisions into the town and constructing a line of blockhouses, connected by trenches.
The Roman counterattack is extremely successful, compelling the withdrawal of Radagaisus's army into …
…the hills of Fiesole, about eight kilometers away, where, with the aid of the chieftain of the Huns, Uldin, together with his allies the Sciri, Stilicho cuts off their supplies and crushes the army.
Radagaisus abandons his followers and tries to escape, but is captured by the Romans.
Stilicho then executes Radagaisus on August 23, 405, and twelve thousand of his higher-status fighters are either incorporated into the Roman army or sold as slaves.
Some of the remaining followers are dispersed, while so many of the others are sold into slavery that the slave market briefly collapses.
Alaric has remained inactive through the whole episode, committed by treaty to Illyricum.
"History never repeats itself, but the Kaleidoscopic combinations of the pictured present often seem to be constructed out of the broken fragments of antique legends."
― Mark Twain, The Gilded Age (1874)