Spanish convoys are making regular runs along the sea route from the New World to the Orient by the end of the sixteenth century.

The Quest for Gold in the Early Modern Period (15th–18th Centuries)

During the Early Modern period (15th–18th centuries), the pursuit of gold was a primary motivation for European exploration and expansion. Spain, Portugal, France, England, and the Netherlands all sought vast wealth in the New World, Africa, and Asia, fueling imperial rivalries, colonization, and global trade networks.

Gold as the Driving Force of Exploration

1. The Age of Exploration (15th–16th Centuries)

   • The Portuguese and Spanish were the first European nations to launch major expeditions, motivated by the search for gold and other riches.
   • The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal, giving Spain dominance in the Americas and Portugal control over Africa and Asia.

2. Spanish Conquests in the Americas

   • Hernán Cortés (1519–1521) conquered the Aztec Empire, seizing vast amounts of gold and silver from Mexico.
   • Francisco Pizarro (1532–1533) overthrew the Inca Empire, capturing the legendary golden ransom of Atahualpa and flooding Spain with Andean treasure.
   • The Spanish Empire relied heavily on gold and silver from the Americas, particularly from:
     • Potosí (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (Mexico)—major sources of silver.
     • The Manila Galleons, which transported New World silver to Asia in exchange for luxury goods.

3. Portugal’s Gold Rush in Brazil (18th Century)

   • While Portugal initially focused on trade routes in Africa and Asia, the discovery of gold in Brazil (1690s) led to a massive gold rush.
   • By the 18th century, Brazil had become the world’s largest gold producer, contributing over half of the world's gold supply.

4. English and French Expeditions

   • England and France, arriving late to the colonization race, also sought gold in the Americas but initially found little success.
   • Instead, they turned to fur trade (North America), cash crops (Caribbean and North America), and piracy against Spanish treasure fleets.

Impact of the Gold Rush Mentality

• Fueled European Imperialism

  • The promise of gold justified conquests, enslavement, and brutal exploitation of indigenous peoples.

• Created the First Global Economy

  • New World gold and silver became the foundation of European finance and trade, enabling the rise of global commerce.
  • Spain became the wealthiest European power, though it also suffered from inflation and economic instability due to its overreliance on bullion.

• Encouraged Further Expeditions and Colonization

  • Rumors of golden cities (e.g., El Dorado, Cíbola, Quivira) led to numerous failed expeditions across the Americas.
  • The search for gold continued into the 18th century, with European powers exploring Africa, the Pacific, and deeper into the Americas.

Conclusion: Gold as the Engine of European Expansion

The quest for gold was a primary driver of European exploration, shaping colonial economies, global trade networks, and imperial rivalries. While Spain and Portugal initially reaped the greatest rewards, the desire for gold led all European powers to expand their reach, ultimately transforming the world economy and paving the way for modern capitalism.

Spain tries in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to maintain a monopoly on trade and colonization in its New World colonies, but northern European powers are increasingly attracted to the region by the potential for trade and settlement.

These powers have resorted to smuggling, piracy, and war in their efforts to challenge and then destroy Spain's monopoly.

The Dutch, English, and French encroach on Spain's New World possessions in the seventeenth century.

Juan Fernández, a Spanish explorer and navigator, had in 1563 sailed from Callao, Peru, to Valparaíso, Chile, in thirty days, a remarkable feat that had gained him the title of brujo, or wizard.

Sailing between Peru and Valparaíso and deviating from his planned course, Captain Fernández discovers the islands named for him, about six hundred and sixty-seven kilometers west of Valparaíso, Chile, on November 22, 1574; ...

...Fernández also discovers the small Pacific islands of San Félix and ...

...San Ambrosio, the two main islands of the Desventuradas, located approximately eight hundred and fifty kilometers off the coast of Chile.

Pieces of wood from the 1500's not native to New Zealand, that were used on Spanish vessels, have been found in the Kaipara Harbour, ...

...as well as other Spanish artifacts off the coast near Dargaville.

The wreck of a Spanish galleon, sighted in the early twenty-first century by an airplane off the Waikato coast, is taken as further proof of the visit to New Zealand by Juan Fernández.

Spanish explorer and navigator Captain Juan Fernández, the subject of debate over the first European contact with New Zealand, is thought to have been sailing a considerable distance off the west coast of South America heading towards Lima from Valparaíso when he was blown off course in a storm.

He is thought to have sighted land at the northeast corner of the south island of New Zealand around 1576, and to have sailed down the east coast of the south island but decided to sail north after not finding a decent place to lay anchor.

Sailing north, he supposedly found the north island and entered Wellington Harbour where he decided to set anchor.

Apparently he spent quite a while there and became friendly with the local Polynesian inhabitants and explored more of the north island.

He set sail back for Chile and had aspirations to return and establish a colony, but the idea was soon scrapped due to lack of interest by officials and the Spanish public.

Proof of the “expedition" includes records of the voyage and various relics of Spanish origin.

A Spanish helmet and cannon ball have been dredged up in Wellington Harbour where Fernández supposedly lay anchor.