Reign of Terror
Years: 1793 - 1794
The Reign of Terror (September 5, 1793 – July 28, 1794) (the latter is date 10 Thermidor, year II of the French Revolutionary Calendar), also known simply as The Terror (French: la Terreur), is a period of violence that occurrs after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between rival political factions, the Girondins and the Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution."
The death toll ranges in the tens of thousands, with 16,594 executed by guillotine (2,639 in Paris), and another 25,000 in summary executions across France.
The guillotine (called the "National Razor") becomes the symbol of the revolutionary cause, strengthened by a string of executions: Marie Antoinette, King Louis XVI, the Girondins, Philippe Égalité (Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans) and Madame Roland, as well as many others, such as pioneering chemist Antoine Lavoisier, lose their lives under its blade.
During 1794, revolutionary France is beset with conspiracies by internal and foreign enemies.
Within France, the revolution is opposed by the French nobility, which has lost its inherited privileges.
The Roman Catholic Church is generally against the Revolution, which had turned the clergy into employees of the state and requires they take an oath of loyalty to the nation (through the Civil Constitution of the Clergy).
In addition, the First French Republic is engaged in a series of wars with neighboring powers intent on crushing the revolution to prevent its spread.The extension of civil war and the advance of foreign armies on national territory produces a political crisis and increases the rivalry between the Girondins and the more radical Jacobins.
The latter are eventually grouped in the parliamentary faction called the Mountain, and they have the support of the Parisian population.
The French government establishes the Committee of Public Safety, which takes its final form on 6 September 1793, in order to suppress internal counterrevolutionary activities and raise additional French military forces.
Through the Revolutionary Tribunal, the Terror's leaders exercise broad dictatorial powers and use them to instigate mass executions and political purges.
The repression accelerates in June and July 1794, a period called "la Grande Terreur" (the Great Terror), and ends in the coup of 9 Thermidor Year II (27 July 1794), leading to the Thermidorian Reaction, in which several protagonists of the Reign of Terror are executed, including Saint-Just and Robespierre.
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Meanwhile, France's external wars in 1794 are prospering, for example in what will become Belgium.
In 1795, the government seems to return to indifference towards the desires and needs of the lower classes concerning freedom of (Catholic) religion and fair distribution of food.
Until 1799, politicians, apart from inventing a new parliamentary system (the 'Directory'), busy themselves with dissuading the people from Catholicism and from royalism.
Portugal and the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1794)
The French Revolution and the execution of Louis XVI in 1793 sent shockwaves throughout monarchical Europe. The Terror and the rise of radical republicanism made kings and queens across the continent fear for their own thrones, prompting many to take strong measures against revolutionary propaganda.
Maria I’s Decline and João’s Rise to Power (1792)
Queen Maria I of Portugal, already suffering from mental instability, became increasingly plagued by nightmares and fits of melancholy, convinced that she was damned. Her condition deteriorated significantly, and in 1792, she formally relinquished power to her second son, João, Prince of Brazil.
Though Maria I remained queen in name, João effectively assumed control of the government, marking the beginning of his de facto reign, which would later become official as King João VI.
Portugal Joins the War Against Revolutionary France (1793)
As revolutionary France became more aggressive, Portugal aligned itself with Britain and Spain, signing mutual assistance treaties in 1793. The three monarchies hoped to contain the spread of revolutionary ideas and suppress the French Republic before it could destabilize their own regimes.
- In 1793, a Spanish army, reinforced by 6,000 Portuguese troops, invaded France across the Basque frontier, aiming to overthrow the revolutionary government.
- The campaign initially saw some successes, as Spanish and Portuguese forces pushed into French territory.
The French Counterattack and the Retreat to Spain (1794)
However, by 1794, the French army had reorganized, and under the leadership of energetic revolutionary generals, they launched a major counteroffensive:
- The Spanish-Portuguese forces were driven out of French territory.
- The French advanced southward, crossing into Spain and reaching the Ebro River, a critical line of defense.
- With the French now threatening Madrid, the Spanish-Portuguese alliance found itself on the defensive.
A Precarious Situation for Portugal
Portugal, though a secondary participant in the war, now faced a dangerous reality:
- The French military successes made it clear that Portugal was vulnerable to invasion.
- Its strong alliance with Britain made it a target for French revolutionary forces, who saw Britain as their main enemy.
- The fall of Spain could leave Portugal exposed to a direct French invasion from the north.
As the French Revolution escalated into a European-wide conflict, Portugal's future remained uncertain, and the country would soon be forced to navigate an increasingly volatile political landscape.
Atlantic West Europe (1792–1803): Revolutionary Upheaval, War, and the Birth of the Modern Era
Between 1792 and 1803, Atlantic West Europe—encompassing northern France, the Low Countries (modern Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg), and Atlantic-facing and English Channel coastal regions—experienced a transformative era dominated by the French Revolution, subsequent revolutionary wars, and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Marked by political upheaval, economic turmoil, military conflict, and cultural dynamism, this period decisively reshaped Europe, laying the foundations of modern political and social structures.
Political and Military Developments
Radicalization of the French Revolution (1792–1794)
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Following the monarchy’s abolition (1792), France proclaimed the First French Republic (September 21, 1792), transitioning rapidly toward radical republican governance.
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The execution of King Louis XVI (January 1793) symbolized the revolutionary break from the Old Regime, triggering domestic counterrevolutions, notably in the Vendée region (western France), where royalist insurgents fiercely resisted revolutionary authority.
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Radical revolutionaries (Jacobins) under Maximilien Robespierre briefly dominated France during the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), employing ruthless measures—mass executions, political purges, and severe suppression of dissent—to defend revolutionary ideals and consolidate power.
Revolutionary Wars and Military Expansion
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Revolutionary France declared war against European monarchies, initiating the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802). Northern France and the Low Countries became primary battlegrounds, reshaping regional geopolitics.
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French forces, driven by revolutionary zeal and innovative mass conscription (levée en masse, 1793), rapidly expanded, annexing territories, including the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) in 1795, forming the French-dominated Batavian Republic in the Netherlands (1795–1806), and profoundly altering political boundaries.
Napoleon’s Rise to Power (1799–1803)
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Military successes propelled General Napoleon Bonaparte into prominence. His victories in Italy and Egypt elevated his reputation, allowing him to stage the Coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799), replacing the unstable Directory (1795–1799) with the French Consulate (1799–1804).
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Napoleon consolidated internal governance, enacted centralizing reforms, and prepared the groundwork for his imperial ambitions, profoundly influencing Atlantic West Europe's political trajectory.
Economic Developments: Crisis and Transformation
War Economy and Economic Disruption
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Revolutionary wars severely disrupted regional economies, interrupting trade routes, causing inflation, and destabilizing markets. Northern France and the Low Countries experienced significant economic hardships, marked by shortages, price volatility, and disrupted maritime commerce, particularly impacting port cities such as Antwerp, Nantes, and Bordeaux.
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Despite disruptions, revolutionary regimes initiated early industrial and infrastructural innovations (canals, roads, standardized weights/measures), setting foundations for future industrialization.
Agricultural Struggles and Urban Challenges
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Continuous warfare and conscription reduced agricultural labor availability, exacerbating food shortages, especially during 1793–1795. Urban centers (Paris, Brussels, Lille, and Amsterdam) experienced acute shortages, heightening social unrest.
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Revolutionary governments attempted agricultural reforms, including land redistribution (abolishing feudal privileges), though immediate productivity gains were limited due to ongoing warfare and instability.
Intellectual and Cultural Developments
Revolutionary Ideologies and Political Thought
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Revolutionary ideals—liberty, equality, fraternity—spread rapidly across Europe, profoundly reshaping political consciousness. Revolutionary literature, propaganda, newspapers, and public debate significantly influenced public opinion and political ideologies.
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Intellectual circles in Paris and Amsterdam continued robust discussions on republicanism, citizenship, human rights, and governance, disseminating revolutionary ideas widely.
Cultural Innovations and Revolutionary Art
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Revolutionary France enthusiastically promoted the Neoclassical aesthetic, exemplified in the works of Jacques-Louis David. His iconic paintings (The Death of Marat, 1793) symbolized revolutionary virtue, sacrifice, and civic duty, deeply influencing European visual culture.
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Public festivals, revolutionary ceremonies, and civic rituals reinforced republican ideals and national consciousness, significantly impacting cultural life in Paris, Brussels, and other urban centers.
Social and Urban Transformations
Revolutionary Urbanism and Civic Mobilization
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Cities, especially Paris, emerged as crucibles of revolutionary activism. Revolutionary organizations, political clubs (Jacobins, Cordeliers), and popular mobilization profoundly reshaped urban political landscapes, influencing governance, municipal policies, and civic identity.
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Revolutionary authorities undertook ambitious urban planning projects, demolishing medieval structures and redesigning public spaces (notably Parisian squares and boulevards), symbolizing new revolutionary ideals of rationality, secularism, and civic order.
Social Upheaval and Shifts in Class Structures
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Revolutionary upheaval significantly disrupted established social hierarchies. Aristocratic privileges were abolished; middle-class professionals, merchants, and intellectuals gained unprecedented political influence, reshaping governance and policy.
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Radical republican ideals temporarily promoted social mobility and egalitarian principles, although persistent economic crises, war hardships, and political instability limited sustained progress toward social equality.
Religious and Educational Developments
Revolutionary Secularization and Religious Policy
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Revolutionary France aggressively pursued secularization, exemplified by the radical campaign of dechristianization (1793–1794), including closing churches, persecuting clergy, and promoting secular civic cults (Cult of Reason, Cult of the Supreme Being).
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Although Napoleon’s Concordat (1801) restored relations with the Catholic Church, revolutionary secularism significantly reshaped religious dynamics, weakening church authority and promoting secular governance throughout Atlantic West Europe.
Educational Reforms and Revolutionary Schools
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Revolutionary governments enacted significant educational reforms, promoting secular, rationalist curricula aimed at producing informed citizens. Establishment of new institutions, including the École Polytechnique (1794) and revolutionary lycée system, profoundly impacted educational standards and structures.
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Northern European universities (Leiden, Ghent, Brussels) saw expanded intellectual debate, integrating revolutionary political thought into curricula, influencing generations of European scholars.
Legacy and Historical Significance
The period from 1792 to 1803 fundamentally transformed Atlantic West Europe, profoundly impacting its political, economic, social, and cultural trajectories:
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Politically, revolutionary upheaval, republican governance, and Napoleon’s rise to power permanently reshaped governance models, promoting centralized state authority, republican ideals, and democratic aspirations.
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Economically, wartime disruptions set back trade and agriculture temporarily but laid groundwork for future infrastructural and industrial modernization.
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Socially, revolutionary ideals challenged traditional hierarchies, promoting unprecedented civic participation, social mobility, and redefining citizenship.
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Culturally, revolutionary innovations reshaped artistic, educational, and intellectual landscapes, establishing enduring legacies in European political and cultural thought.
Ultimately, this era established critical foundations for Europe’s transition into modernity, profoundly influencing subsequent European and global developments.
Francisco de Miranda had taken an active part in the French Revolution from 1791.
In Paris, he had befriended the Girondists Jacques Pierre Brissot and Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve, and had briefly served as a general in the section of the French Revolutionary Army commanded by Dumouriez, fighting in the 1792 campaign in the Low Countries.
Miranda is first arrested in April 1793 on the orders of Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville, Chief Prosecutor of the Revolution, and accused of conspiring against the republic with Dumouriez.
Though indicted before the Revolutionary Tribunal—and under attack in Jean-Paul Marat's L'Ami du peuple—he conducts his defense with such calm eloquence that he is declared innocent.
Even so, the campaign of Marat and the rest of the Jacobins against him does not weaken.
Louis Phillipe, the son of Philippe Egalité, has made the successful transition from officer in the royal army to one who has fought for the republic in its initial battles.
He flees the country when he comes under suspicion of involvement in a conspiracy to restore the monarchy.
Philippe Egalité, already under attack by the Girondists, is arrested when his son defects to the Austrians with General Dumouriez.
Egalité is sent to prison at Marseille.
Paris has been plagued by food riots and mass hunger throughout the winter of 1792 and spring of 1793.
The new Convention has done little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793, occupied instead with matters of war.
Finally, on April 6, 1793, the Convention creates the Committee of Public Safety (closely associated with the leadership of Danton, it is initially known as "the Danton Committee"), and is given a monumental task: “To deal with the radical movements of the Enragés, food shortages and riots, the revolt in the Vendée and in Brittany, recent defeats of its armies, and the desertion of its commanding general.”
Most notably, the Committee of Public Safety will instate a policy of terror, and the guillotine will begin to fall on perceived enemies of the republic at an ever-increasing rate, beginning the period known today as the Reign of Terror.
Blanchelande, who had been replaced in 1792 as Governor of Saint-Domingue d'Esparbès (who will himself be replaced by Galbaud du Fort after June 1793) and recalled to Paris, is convicted of counter-revolutionary actions and treason.
Condemned to the guillotine by a revolutionary court on April 11, 1793, he is executed April 15.
Paris sections—encouraged by the enragés Jacques Roux and Jacques Hébert—take over the Convention on June 2, 1793, calling for administrative and political purges, a low fixed price for bread, and a limitation of the electoral franchise to sans-culottes alone.
With the backing of the National Guard, they persuade the Convention to arrest twenty-nine Girondist leaders, including Jacques Pierre Brissot.
Miranda is arrested again in July 1793, when he is incarcerated in La Force prison, effectively one of the antechambers of death during the prevailing Reign of Terror.
Appearing again before the tribunal, and mustering all his soldierly courage, he accuses the Committee of Public Safety of tyranny, in disregarding his previous acquittal.
Miranda seems to have survived by a combination of good luck and political expediency: the revolutionary government simply cannot agree what to do with him.
He remains in La Force.
The fall of the Girondins on June 2, helped by the actions of François Hanriot, the new leader of the National Guard, had been one of Jean-Paul Marat's last achievements.
Forced to retire from the Convention as a result of his worsening skin disease, he has continued to work from home, where he soaks in a medicinal bath.
Now that the Montagnards no longer need his support in the struggle against the Girondins, Robespierre and other leading Montagnards have begun to separate themselves from him, while the Convention largely ignores his letters.
The assassination of Marat by Girondin sympathizer Charlotte Corday on July 13 results in a further increase in Jacobin political influence.
"Not to know what happened before you were born is to be a child forever. For what is the time of a man except it be interwoven with that memory of ancient things of a superior age?"
― Marcus Tullius Cicero, Orator (46 BCE)