Georgia, because of its weak position, cannot name the terms of protection by the Russian Empire.

In 1801 Tsar Alexander I had summarily abolished the kingdom of Kartli-Kakhetia, and the heir to the Bagratid throne was forced to abdicate.

In the next decade, the Russian Empire gradually annexes Georgia's entire territory.

Eastern Georgia (the regions of Kartli and Kakhetia) had become part of the Russian Empire in 1801, and western Georgia (Imeretia) is incorporated in 1804.

After annexation Russian governors try to rearrange Georgian feudal society and government according to the Russian model.

Russian education and ranks of nobility are introduced, and the Georgian Orthodox Church losws its autocephalous status in 1811.

The Middle East: 1816–1827 CE

Defeat and Reorganization of the Saudi-Wahhabi State

The Ottoman-Saudi War, initiated by Muhammad Ali Pasha, governor of Egypt, achieves significant successes. By 1818, Muhammad Ali's forces, led by his son Ibrahim Pasha, decisively capture the Saudi capital of Ad Diriyah, effectively crushing the First Saudi State. Abdullah ibn Saud, the Saudi leader, is captured and later executed in Constantinople, marking a decisive Ottoman victory. Although the Saudi political structure collapses, Wahhabi religious doctrines persist throughout the Arabian Peninsula, maintaining influence among local tribes and providing the ideological foundation for future Saudi resurgence.

Following the fall of Ad Diriyah, Muhammad Ali restores the authority of the ashraf, traditional rulers in Mecca since the tenth century. To consolidate Egyptian authority, garrisons are placed strategically across the peninsula, including at the important port of Al Qatif on the Persian Gulf and along the Red Sea coast.

Despite these setbacks, Turki ibn Abd Allah, an uncle of former ruler Saud, escapes Egyptian capture and, after hiding among loyalists, recaptures Ad Diriyah in 1821. He subsequently establishes the new Al Saud base in Riyadh by 1824. The swift reestablishment of control demonstrates the lasting influence and appeal of Wahhabi doctrine. After the death of Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab in 1792, Al Saud leaders adopt the title of imam, granting them both political and religious authority, significantly strengthening their legitimacy and influence in central Arabia.

Qajar Dynasty: Continued Pressure and Territorial Losses

Under Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, Persia endures further setbacks following renewed conflict with Russia. The Russo-Persian War (1826–1828), initiated by Persia in an attempt to regain territories lost under the Treaty of Gulistan, ends disastrously for the Qajars. Despite initial victories, Persian forces are decisively defeated, culminating in the later Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), which imposes severe territorial losses and heavy financial indemnities. This period exacerbates internal pressures on the Qajar Dynasty, highlighting its military and administrative weaknesses.

British Dominance and Maritime Stability in Oman

Said bin Sultan al-Busaidi continues to solidify his rule in Oman, enhancing economic stability through increased cooperation with British maritime power. His reign faces challenges from family and tribal disputes, growing Anglo-French rivalry in the Indian Ocean, the expansion of the Al Saud-Wahhabi movement, and persistent piracy from the Qawasim tribes, resulting in the area being labeled the “Pirate Coast.” To protect shipping, Great Britain initiates treaties with regional leaders starting in 1820, effectively outlawing sea battles and significantly reducing piracy.

By 1820, Oman loses control over parts of the southern Persian Gulf coast, effectively cutting off direct gulf access. Nonetheless, Said bin Sultan develops a modest military and naval fleet, supporting mercantile interests. Coastal Arabia becomes increasingly integrated into the global economy through the trade of coffee, slaves, pearls, and dates, along with pilgrimage routes to Mecca. Although pressured by Britain to suppress the slave trade, Said bin Sultan acknowledges the difficulty, signing an agreement in 1822 that forbids selling slaves to Christian subjects.

Tribal Dynamics and Power Shifts in the Persian Gulf

The departure of the Al Khalifa to Bahrain and the economic decline of Az Zubarah leave a power vacuum in Qatar, allowing the Al Thani clan to further consolidate their power and influence. The Al Jalahma remain significant players in maritime activities from their base at Al Khuwayr, although the severity of their piracy declines significantly following increased British naval patrols.

In Abu Dhabi, the Al bu Falah continue strengthening their position, bolstered by close ties with Oman and British authorities. This enhances Abu Dhabi's economic and political importance, particularly regarding maritime security and regional trade.

Muhammad Ali's Growing Autonomy and Regional Influence

Muhammad Ali Pasha further consolidates his political autonomy from the weakened Ottoman central authority. Following his successful campaign against the Saudi state, he embarks on extensive modernization programs in Egypt, strengthening military, agricultural, and industrial capabilities. This significantly elevates Egypt's regional status, laying the groundwork for future independent actions against Ottoman interests and expanding his political influence into neighboring territories.

Legacy of the Era

Between 1816 and 1827, major geopolitical shifts redefine the Middle East. The collapse of the Saudi-Wahhabi state temporarily stabilizes Ottoman authority in Arabia, although Wahhabi influence endures and quickly reasserts itself under new leadership in Riyadh. Persian territorial losses underscore the vulnerability of the Qajar Dynasty, while British maritime interventions decisively curb regional piracy and enhance trade stability. Muhammad Ali's increased autonomy signals a profound shift in Ottoman-Egyptian dynamics, setting the stage for significant transformations across the broader Middle East.

Peace has reigned in the Caucasus for thirteen years since the Treaty of Gulistan concluded the previous Russo-Persian War in 1813.

However, Fath 'Ali Shah, constantly in need of foreign subsidies, relies on the advice of British agents, who press him to reconquer the territories lost to Russia and pledge their support to military action.

The matter is decided in spring 1826, when a bellicose party of the Crown Prince, Abbas Mirza, prevails in Tehran and the Russian minister, Aleksandr Sergeyevich Menshikov, is placed under house arrest.

The tsar grants Paskevich the title of "Erivanskii"(Count of Yerevan), a million rubles and a diamond-mounted sword for his services after the Persians unsuccessfully try to recapture Echmiadzin.

Echmiadzin and the Nakhichevan Khanate are conquered from the Persians under Ivan Paskevich's leadership.

The Russians under Ivan Paskevich storm Yerevan on October 1, 1827, ending a millennium of Muslim domination in Eastern Armenia.

Pashkevich, in leaving Nakhichivan, had entrusted the area to Prince Eristov, a Georgian, with Muravyov as his lieutenant, giving them strict instructions to merely guard the province and make no aggressive move.

Abbas Mirza does the obvious thing.

Crossing the Aras unopposed he finds himself facing Eristov with four thousand men and twenty-six guns, far more than he had expected.

Abbas withdraws; Eristov chases him for a while and returns to Nakhichivan.

So far they are within their orders.

When they hear that the Persian army is in a state of complete demoralization the temptation is too great.

Setting off on September 30 they had reached a place called Maraud, Abbas got behind them, but when news of the fall of Yerevan reached them the Persian army was seized with panic and dispersed.

Muravyov now chooses to be bold, or foolish.

Concealing his plans from everyone including Eristov he leaves Marand on October 11 and heads south.

The Russian forces are a few miles from Tabriz by October 13.

The garrison flees, driven out, it is said, by the inhabitants.

The gates are opened and the ancient and wealthy city of sixty thousand inhabitants is occupied without opposition.

Peace negotiations begin immediately, but will drag on.

The Middle East: 1828–1839 CE

Egyptian Dominance and Ottoman Reforms

From 1828 onward, Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt consolidates his position as a major autonomous ruler within the Ottoman Empire, significantly influencing Middle Eastern politics. Muhammad Ali modernizes Egypt’s military and administration, turning it into a formidable regional power. In 1831, his son Ibrahim Pasha invades and occupies Syria, Palestine, and parts of Anatolia, threatening Ottoman stability and nearly capturing Constantinople itself by 1833. Assisted by Bashir II of Mount Lebanon, who allies with Muhammad Ali, Ibrahim captures Acre in May 1832 after a seven-month siege and Damascus soon afterward. However, Ibrahim’s centralization policies, taxation, and conscription efforts become unpopular, and Ottoman forces ultimately expel Egyptian rule from Syria by 1839. The Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi (1833) temporarily resolves tensions, granting Russia increased influence in Ottoman affairs in exchange for protecting the empire from Egyptian threats.

Saudi-Wahhabi Consolidation

The Al Saud-Wahhabi state under Turki ibn Abd Allah continues to solidify its power in central Arabia. Turki governs from his capital at Riyadh, successfully reclaiming territories lost after the Egyptian occupation and retaking Ad Diriyah in 1821. His administration emphasizes Wahhabi religious principles to reinforce political authority, further spreading Wahhabism throughout the Arabian Peninsula. Turki’s swift reclamation of Najd demonstrates the entrenched nature of Saudi-Wahhabi influence, rooted in religious authority. The Al Saud levy troops from loyal tribes, conduct raids termed as jihads, and collect tribute based on Islamic law. Turki maintains a delicate balance, cooperating with the Ottomans by forwarding tribute from Oman, yet he contends with internal family conflicts and external pressures, including occasional Ottoman interference and rising British influence in the Gulf.

Qajar Persia and Continued Territorial Losses

Persia under Fath-Ali Shah Qajar and later his grandson Mohammad Shah Qajar (1834–1848) continues struggling against internal dissent and external pressures, particularly from Russia and Britain. The Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), following Persia’s defeat in the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828), imposes harsh terms, ceding crucial territories north of the Aras River and granting Russia considerable economic privileges and extraterritorial rights. These losses exacerbate Persia's internal instability, highlight the declining power of the Qajar Dynasty, and catalyze Armenian migrations into Russian-held territories. Russia introduces new administrative structures, Russian legal systems, and educational reforms in newly acquired territories, significantly impacting local governance and society.

British Maritime Influence and Omani Authority

Said bin Sultan al-Busaidi strengthens Omani trade networks through diplomatic cooperation with Britain. Despite persistent tribal quarrels and the Qawasim pirates' disruptive raids, Said bin Sultan develops a small fleet, secures trade routes, and establishes peace along the Trucial Coast through British-mediated treaties. These agreements stabilize maritime commerce, reinforce British influence, and clearly separate Oman’s coastal governance from the Ibadi interior. Said distances himself from traditional Ibadi authority, adopting the secular title of sultan and solidifying British alliances that safeguard his rule against internal and external threats.

Gulf Tribal Dynamics and Qatar's Ascendancy

In the Persian Gulf, shifting tribal alliances continue to reshape regional politics. The Al Thani clan in Qatar solidifies its control and autonomy, leveraging the weakening power of the Al Khalifa in Bahrain and resisting their attempts to reassert dominance. The Al Thani embrace Wahhabi ideology, reinforcing their distinct religious and political identity. The Bani Yas tribe under the Al Nahyan family further consolidates power in Abu Dhabi, allying themselves strategically with Oman against threats from the Qawasim pirates of the Pirate Coast. Qatar, under the Al Thani, thus emerges increasingly independent, driven by its strategic position and ideological alignment with Wahhabism.

Russian Consolidation in the Caucasus

The Russian Empire further consolidates its hold on the Caucasus, enforcing stricter administrative control and introducing Russian legal and educational systems in Georgia and northern Azerbaijan. Tsar Alexander I's annexation of Kartli-Kakhetia in 1801 and subsequent integration of Imeretia in 1804 significantly disrupt local Georgian feudal structures. The Georgian Orthodox Church loses its autocephalous status in 1811. Russian dominance intensifies following Persia’s defeats, further partitioning Azerbaijani lands into three Russian administrative provinces. The integration of Armenians under a unified legal system under Russian rule facilitates the rise of Armenian national consciousness.

Legacy of the Era

Between 1828 and 1839, the Middle East experiences critical transformations. Egyptian military expansion challenges Ottoman sovereignty, prompting significant international diplomatic interventions. Persian territorial losses and internal fragmentation underline Qajar weaknesses. Saudi-Wahhabi consolidation in Arabia, British maritime dominance in the Gulf, and Russian expansion in the Caucasus collectively reshape regional dynamics, laying crucial foundations for future geopolitical developments.

The Qajar rulers of Persia had begun to face pressure from two great world powers, Russia and Britain, early in the nineteenth century.

Britain's interest in Iran arises from the need to protect trade routes to India, while Russia's comes from a desire to expand into Iranian territory from the north.

In two disastrous wars with Russia, which end with the Treaty of Gulistan (1812) and the Treaty of Turkmanchay (1828), Iran loses all its territories in the Caucasus north of the Aras River.