Northwest Europe (1288–1299 CE): Succession, Warfare, and Legal Innovation

England: Continued Consolidation and Scottish Intervention

Edward I continued to strengthen his dominion, increasingly asserting influence over Scotland following the Scottish succession crisis after Alexander III's death. In 1290, the death of Margaret, Maid of Norway, Alexander's granddaughter and last heir, left Scotland without a direct ruler, prompting Edward I to arbitrate among competing Scottish nobles in the Great Cause (1291–1292). Edward selected John Balliol as King of Scots, but his heavy-handed interference led to widespread Scottish resentment and rebellion, culminating in open conflict and Edward's invasion of Scotland in 1296. Edward decisively defeated Scottish forces at the Battle of Dunbar, captured Edinburgh, and temporarily subdued Scotland, seizing the symbolic Stone of Scone.

Scotland: Crisis and National Resistance

The period after 1288 was dominated by Scotland's succession crisis, foreign intervention, and resistance. After Edward's conquest and subjugation of Scotland in 1296, William Wallace emerged as a leader of national resistance, famously defeating English forces at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297. However, Wallace's subsequent defeat at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298 restored temporary English dominance, prolonging the struggle for Scottish independence.

Ireland: Persistent Gaelic-Norman Rivalries

Norman influence remained dominant around major coastal towns, while the Gaelic Irish persistently resisted Norman expansion in Ulster and Connacht. This period was marked by continuous clashes, reinforcing the pattern of fragmented control and limiting effective Norman centralization.

Denmark: Turmoil and Royal Intrigue

The reign of Eric V Klipping ended abruptly when he was assassinated in 1286, plunging Denmark into internal conflict. His successor, Eric VI Menved, took the throne amid accusations and political intrigue, dealing with prolonged internal rebellions and disputes with neighboring principalities throughout the decade. Nonetheless, he strove to strengthen royal authority and stability through legal reforms and administrative consolidation.

Norway: Haakon V and Continued Legal Advances

Following the death of Magnus VI Lagabøte in 1280, Norway transitioned through the brief reign of Eric II Magnusson (1280–1299), and subsequently his brother Haakon V. Haakon continued Magnus's emphasis on strengthening royal authority and administrative structures, furthering the establishment of a robust and centralized monarchy.

Iceland: Cultural and Political Resilience

Despite continued Norwegian dominance, Icelandic intellectual and literary traditions flourished. The Althing, though influenced by external powers, continued to function as a crucial institution, embodying Iceland's cultural resilience and autonomy. Saga literature, including the widespread circulation of works like Njal's Saga and the Völsunga saga, remained central to Icelandic identity and cultural expression.

Economic and Urban Development

Economic growth persisted across Northwest Europe, driven by dynamic trade in wool, timber, and luxury goods. Major cities—London, Bruges, Bergen, and Dublin—continued their infrastructural and commercial expansion, serving as thriving hubs of trade and cultural exchange.

Religious and Scholarly Influence

The influence of mendicant orders like the Dominicans and Franciscans remained strong, enhancing educational and religious life. Intellectual activity continued, building upon the earlier contributions of Roger Bacon and Robert Grosseteste, with scholastic traditions influencing emerging academic communities across Northwest Europe.

Literary and Cultural Flourishing

The popularity of Middle English romances such as Havelok the Dane signaled ongoing literary development, emphasizing themes of ideal kingship, social justice, and the lived experiences of everyday people, reflecting a complex and increasingly sophisticated literary culture.

Legacy of the Era

By 1299 CE, Northwest Europe had experienced significant developments: the turbulent conquest and rebellion in Scotland, the continuing Gaelic resistance in Ireland, internal strife in Denmark, the enduring Norwegian commitment to legal centralization, and Iceland’s robust cultural legacy. Collectively, these factors underscored the ongoing transformation toward powerful, centralized states and distinct national identities, setting the stage for later medieval developments.

Philip IV's Seizure of Gascony and the Anglo-French War (1294–1297)

In 1294, tensions between Philip IV of France and Edward I of England escalated when French troops, under Philip’s direction, occupied English strongholds in Gascony—a fief held by Edward I as a vassal of the French Crown. This aggressive move led Edward to repudiate his vassalage and marked the beginning of a new phase in the long-running conflict between England and France.

Causes of the Conflict

• Gascony was a key English possession in southwestern France, held as part of the Duchy of Aquitaine. Although it was formally a vassal territory under the French Crown, its rulers—English kings—frequently acted independently, leading to recurring disputes over sovereignty.
• The immediate cause of the war was a maritime dispute between English and French sailors, which escalated into a full-blown diplomatic crisis.
• In 1294, Philip IV summoned Edward I to appear before him as his vassal to answer for alleged violations in Gascony.
• When Edward refused, Philip declared the duchy forfeited, allowing French troops to seize English-held towns and castles in 1294–1295.

Philip’s War Measures and the Alliance with Scotland

• To finance the war, Philip IV attempted new fiscal measures, including heavy taxation and the debasement of coinage, which proved deeply unpopular and led to widespread discontent.
• Seeking to undermine England further, Philip forged an alliance with Scotland, taking advantage of John Balliol’s conflicts with Edward I.
• In 1295, Philip pushed deep into Gascony, launching a successful campaign to retake Guienne, dealing a major blow to English control in France.

Consequences of the Conflict

• The war drained both kingdoms financially, forcing both monarchs to seek extraordinary revenues from their subjects, provoking internal unrest.
• Although the war did not result in a decisive victory for either side, Philip IV’s seizure of Guienne in 1295 temporarily strengthened French royal authority over its southwestern territories.
• The conflict set the stage for ongoing Anglo-French rivalry, which would ultimately culminate in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453).

Philip IV’s aggressive expansion in Gascony and his alliance with Scotland demonstrated his ambition to weaken England and centralize French power, while Edward I’s repudiation of vassalage foreshadowed the long-term breakdown of feudal ties between England and France.

Edward I of England summons the Model Parliament to Westminster  on November 13, 1295.

This assembly includes members of the clergy and the aristocracy, as well as representatives from the various counties and boroughs.

Each county returns two knights, two burgesses are elected from each borough, and each city provides two citizens.

This composition will become the model for later parliaments, hence the name.

A similar scheme had been used in summoning De Montfort's Parliament in 1265.

That Parliament, however, had been called by Simon de Montfort in the middle of the Second Barons' War against Henry III of England; that the same scheme should be adopted by a king (Henry's son and heir, who had quelled Montfort's uprising) is remarkable.

The assembly is unicameral, summoning forty-nine lords to sit with two hundred and ninety-two representatives of the Commons.

The Model Parliament creates a precedent, whereby each "successor of a baron" (which includes Lords spirirtual) who received a writ to the parliament of 1295 has "a legal right to receive a writ."

(Powicke, Maurice, Medieval England: 1066-1485, pp.

96-97 (London: Oxford University Press paperback edition 1969).)

However, this strictly hereditary right will not be recognized formally until 1387.

The construction of Beaumaris Castle on Anglesey, last of the ring of castles built by Edward I of England to subdue Wales, begins in 1295.

Plans were probably first made to construct the castle in 1284, but this had been delayed due to lack of funds and work only begins in 1295 following the Madog ap Llywelyn uprising.

A substantial workforce will be employed in the initial years under the direction of James of St. George.

Edward's invasion of Scotland will soon divert funding from the project, however, and work will stop, only recommencing after an invasion scare in 1306.

John Balliol, in an attempt to assert Scottish independence during his reign, mobilizes troops and prepares to invade northern England.

Edward I responds by immediately invading and subduing Scotland, receiving homage from many nobles, including Bruce.

Edward’s forces storm and captures Berwick-upon-Tweed on March 30, 1296, sacking what is at this time a Scottish border town with much bloodshed, slaughtering most residents, including those who flee to the churches.

After sacking Berwick, Longshanks’ forces defeat and imprison Baliol, then …

…take Edinburgh, …

…Stirling, …

…Perth, …

…Elgin, and other castles.

The battle of Dunbar, an action between two bodies of mounted men-at-arms, effectively ends the war of 1296, with the English winning.

The remainder of the campaign is little more than a grand mopping-up operation.

James, the hereditary High Steward of Scotland, surrenders the important fortress at Roxburgh without attempting a defense, and others are quick to follow his example.

Only Edinburgh Castle holds out for a week against Edward's siege engines.

A Scottish garrison sent out to help King John, who had fled north to Forfar, are told to provide for their own safety.

Edward himself advances into central and northern Scotland in pursuit of King John.

Stirling Castle, which guards the vital passage across the River Forth, is deserted save for a janitor who had stayed behind to hand the keys to the English.

John reaches Perth on June 21, where he receives messages from Edward asking for peace.