Alan I of Brittany: Consolidation of Power…

Yang Fugong had been instrumental in having Emperor Zhaozong made emperor, but by 889 conflicts had begun between the emperor and the chief eunuch, leading to a public argument between Yang and the chancellors Kong Wei on one occasion over Kong's accusation that Yang was disrespecting the emperor.

Nothing further had come of the dispute publicly at this point, however.

Nevertheless, at the suggestion of Kong's colleague Zhang Jun, who advocates that a strong imperial army directly under the emperor is essential for the restoration of imperial power to counteract the warlords and the eunuch-commanded Shence Armies, Emperor Zhaozong begins recruiting an imperial army that eventually numbers one hundred thousand by spring 890.

At this point, Kong and Zhang believe that it is time to test this army, to show its strengths in the struggle against Yang at court.

Zhang therefore advocates a campaign against the warlord Li Keyong the military governor of Hedong Circuit (headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi)—one of the most powerful warlords of the realm and archrival to the also powerful Zhu Quanzhong—as both Zhu and Li Kuangwei the military governor of Lulong are at this time also requesting an imperial campaign against the expanding Li Keyong.

Emperor Zhaozong, despite his reservations, approves the campaign, which gets under way in summer 890, with Zhu's army attacking Zhaoyi Circuit (headquartered in modern Changzhi, Shanxi), then also under Li Keyong's control, from the southeast; Li Kuangwei and Helian Duo the military governor of Datong Circuit (headquartered in modern Datong, Shanxi) attacking from the northeast; and the main imperial army, under Zhang's command and supplemented by the armies of various circuits around Chang'an, attacking from the southwest.

Zhu's army was able to seize Zhaoyi quickly, due to the assassination of Zhaoyi's military governor Li Kegong (Li Keyong's brother) by his officer An Jushou, but the imperial official sent to take over Zhaoyi, Sun Kui, is intercepted and captured by Li Keyong's adoptive son Li Cunxiao (and subsequently executed when he will not submit to Li Keyong), badly affecting the imperial army's morale.

Li Cunxiao subsequently puts Zhaoyi's capital Lu Prefecture under siege, forcing Zhu's army to withdraw.

Li Kuangwei and Helian's armies are also repelled by Li Keyong's adoptive sons Li Cunxin and Li Siyuan, leaving Zhang's imperial army to face Li Keyong himself.

By late 890, the imperial army is suffering repeated defeats at the hands of Li Keyong's Hedong army, and the supplemental troops from Jingnan (headquartered in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi) and Fengxiang (headquartered in modern Baoji, Shaanxi) Circuits abandon the imperial army and withdraw by themselves, eventually leading to a total collapse of the imperial army, with Zhang and his deputy, Han Jian the military governor of Zhenguo Circuit (headquartered in modern Weinan, Shaanxi) escaping with just a small contingent; the rest of the imperial army is effectively lost.

With Li Keyong subsequently threatening an invasion, Emperor Zhaozong is forced to restore Li Keyong to his titles and positions and exile Zhang and Kong, ending the campaign against Li Keyong in disaster.

Arnulf, Svatopluk's opponent in the "Wilhelminer War", had become the king of East Francia in 887.

The two meet at Omuntesperch, a locality that has yet not been identified, during the winter of 890.

At the meeting Svatopluk, transmits to Arnulf a message from Pope Stephen V, urging the king to invade Italy to protect the Holy See.

According to Regino of Prüm, the two monarchs also conclude an agreement, in which Arnulf cedes the ducatus of the Bohemians to Svatopluk.

Leo VI, educated by the patriarch Photios, is more scholar than soldier.

In addition to completing his father's Greek canon of imperial laws, published as the Basilica, he writes several decrees (novels) on a wide range of ecclesiastical and secular problems.

He also writes a funeral panegyric on his father, liturgical poems, sermons and orations, secular poetry, and military treatises.

Rudolph, who belongs to the elder Welf family, is the son of Conrad, Count of Auxerre and Waldrada of Worms.

From his father he has inherited the lay abbacy of St. Maurice en Valais, making him the most powerful magnate in Upper Burgundy—present-day western Switzerland and the Franche-Comté.

After the deposition and death of Charles the Fat, the nobles and leading clergy of Upper Burgundy meet at St. Maurice and elect Rudolph as king.

Apparently on the basis of this election, Rudolph claims the whole of Lotharingia, taking much of modern Lorraine and Alsace—but his claim is contested by Arnulf of Carinthia, the new king of East Francia or Germany, who rapidly forces Rudolph to abandon Lotharingia in return for recognition as king of Burgundy.

However, hostilities between Rudolph and Arnulf seem to have continued intermittently until 894.

Richard had supported the claim of Duke Rudolph to be King of Upper Burgundy after the death of Charles the Fat in 888, and has married his sister Adelaide, daughter of Conrad II of Auxerre.

Richard also supports the coronation of his nephew Louis as King of Provence in 890.

A council of bishops and feudatories of the realm at the Diet of Valence in August 890, after hearing the recommendation of the pope, and receiving notification of Charles the Fat’s previous agreement to the proposition, proclaim Louis as King of Arles, Provence, and Cisjurane Burgundy.

Alan I of Brittany: The Apex of Breton Power (c. 890–907)

Following the death of Judicael of Poher, Alan I of Brittany becomes the undisputed ruler of Brittany, expanding his domain to include both Breton and Frankish territories, effectively recreating the kingdom of Brittany as it had been under Salomon (r. 857–874).

The Extent of Alan’s Rule

• Alan rules over all the traditional Breton lands:
  • Léon
  • Domnonée
  • Cornouaille
  • Vannetais
• He also controls key Frankish counties:
  • Rennes
  • Nantes
  • Coutances
  • Avranches
  • The Pays de Retz and parts of western Anjou
• His eastern frontier reaches the river Vire, marking the furthest extent of Breton influence into Neustria.

Alan is the first Breton ruler to govern this entire territory without internal opposition, making him the most powerful Breton monarch in history. However, ...

...his control over the Nantais is contested by Fulk I of Anjou, though Alan holds the upper hand during his lifetime.

A Strong and Wealthy Ruler

• Alan's power base remains in southeastern Brittany, particularly around Vannes and Nantes, where he amasses great wealth and land.
• His control over Frankish territories solidifies Brittany’s independence from West Francia, ensuring that it is not merely a vassal state of the Carolingians.

The Last Ruler of a Unified Brittany

• Alan I is the last ruler to govern all of Brittany and its adjacent Frankish territories as a unified realm.
• After his death, Brittany will never again reach this level of political and territorial unity, as internal divisions and external pressures fragment the region.

Legacy of Alan I

• His reign represents the pinnacle of Breton independence, securing territories beyond Brittany itself.
• He successfully defends Breton sovereignty against Frankish and Viking threats.
• His rivalry with Fulk I of Anjou foreshadows the future struggles between Brittany and Anjou, particularly in the 11th and 12th centuries.

Alan I’s rule stands as the golden age of Breton expansion, marking the height of Brittany’s influence in medieval Europe.

The restoration of London had progressed through the latter half of the 880s and is believed to have revolved around a new street plan, added fortifications in addition to the existing Roman walls, and, some believe, the construction of matching fortifications on the south bank of the River Thames.

Alfred’s capture of London from the Danish Vikings in 886, which marks the farthest extent of his essentially defensive territorial expansion, has led to general recognition of his leadership over all the Anglo-Saxon rulers who had not succumbed to Danish rule.

This is also the period in which almost all chroniclers agree that the Saxon people of pre-unification England submitted to Alfred.

All the English living under Danelaw now regard Alfred as their protector, although he is the effective ruler of only Wessex and English Mercia.

The name “Engla lande” ("the land of the Angles") comes into use around 890.

This is not, however, the point in which Alfred came to be known as King of England; in fact he will never adopt the title for himself.

In truth, the power that Alfred wields over the English peoples at this time seems to stem largely from the military might of the West Saxons, Alfred's political connections from having the ruler of Mercia as his son-in-law, and Alfred's keen administrative talents.

Ohthere of Hålogaland, a Viking adventurer from Hålogaland, travels around 890 to England, where Alfred has his tales written down.

Ohthere reported that he lived "north-most of all the Northmen", and that "no-one [lived] to the north of him" He spoke of his travels north to the White Sea, and south to Denmark and England, describing his route.

He also spoke of Sweoland (central Sweden), the Sami people (Finnas), and of two peoples called the "Cwenas" living in Cwena land and the "Beormas".

Ohthere reported that the Beormas spoke a language related to that of the Sami people, and lived in an area of the White Sea region, "Bjarmland", usually seen to have referred to the southern shores of the White Sea and the basin of the Northern Dvina River (Vienanjoki in Finnish) and—presumably—some of the surrounding areas.

Today, these territories comprise a part of the Arkhangelsk Oblast of Russia.