The eleventh-century taifas, weakened by their disunity, had fallen piecemeal to the Castilians, who had reason to anticipate the completion of the Reconquest.

When Toledo was lost in 1085, the alarmed amirs had appealed for aid to the Almoravids, a militant Berber party of strict Muslims, who in a few years had won control of the Maghreb (northwest Africa).

The Almoravids had incorporated all of Al Andalus, except Zaragoza, into their North African empire.

They had attempted to stimulate a religious revival based on their own evangelical brand of Islam.

In Spain, however, their movement had soon lost its missionary fervor.

The Almoravid state has fallen apart by the mid-twelfth century under pressure from another religious group, the Almohads, who extend their control from Morocco to Spain and make Seville their capital.

The Almohads share the crusading instincts of the Almoravids and pose an even greater military threat to the Christian states, but their expansion is stopped decisively in the epic battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), a watershed in the history of the Reconquest.

Muslim strength ebbs hereafter.

Ferdinand III takes Seville in 1248, reducing Al Andalus to the emirate of Granada, which had bought its safety by betraying the Almohads' Spanish capital.

Granada remains a Muslim state, but as a dependency of Castile.

The Final Stages of the Portuguese Reconquista (1185–1249 CE)

The Portuguese Reconquista progresses under the successive reigns of Sancho I, Afonso II, Sancho II, and Afonso III, gradually pushing the Muslim frontier southward until Portugal reaches its modern territorial limits.

Sancho I (r. 1185–1211) and Early Southern Campaigns

As the son and heir of Afonso Henriques, Sancho I continues his father’s military campaigns, expanding Portuguese control in the Algarve:

• 1189 – Sancho captures the castle at Alvor, the city of Silves, and the castle at Albufeira.
• However, these territories are soon retaken by the Muslims, requiring future monarchs to reconquer them.

Afonso II (r. 1211–1223) and the Battle of Navas de Tolosa

Sancho I’s son, Afonso II, launches new campaigns in the Alentejo, with the support of his brother-in-law, Alfonso VIII of Castile:

• 1212 – Afonso II participates in the Battle of Navas de Tolosa, a decisive Christian victory that weakens Muslim power in Iberia.
• 1217 – He takes part in the siege and conquest of Alcácer do Sal, one of the largest strongholds in the Alentejo.

Sancho II (r. 1223–1248) and the Algarve Campaigns

Under Sancho II, the Reconquista advances into the Algarve, where major battles take place:

• 1238 – His forces defeat Muslim armies at Tavira and Cacela, further expanding Portuguese control southward.

Afonso III (r. 1248–1279) and the Final Conquest

The final stage of the Reconquista occurs under Afonso III, who:

• 1249 – Launches a campaign against the last Muslim enclave in the Algarve, capturing Faro and securing Portugal’s southern coastline.

This last battle officially completes the Portuguese Reconquista, defining the territorial boundaries of Portugal, which have remained largely unchanged ever since.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (1108 – 1251 CE): Independent Portugal, Castilian Expansion, and Basque Shipyards

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Generally favorable, with localized droughts on the Meseta; Atlantic façade remained cool–wet and fish-rich.

Societies and Political Developments

• Portugal achieved independence under Afonso I (r. 1139–1185); Coimbra and Lisbon (1147) anchored the realm, while Minho/Trás-os-Montes consolidated.

• León and Castile alternated union and separation (e.g., Alfonso VII, then Ferdinand II in León, Alfonso VIII in Castile); northern cities (León, Burgos, Salamanca, Valladolid) expanded jurisdiction and markets.

• Navarre remained an independent Pyrenean crown; Basque valleys deepened self-governance under fueros.

Economy and Trade

• Cantabrian ports (notably Bilbao’s estuary even before its 1300 charter) exported iron bars, timber, wine, and hides; Lisbon/Porto handled wine, salt fish, and cloth.

• Basque shipyards innovated ocean-capable hulls and stern rudders; long-range whaling and cod probing began in the 12th–13th centuries.

• Fair circuits connected León–Burgos–Sahagún to ports; Douro wine and Beira textiles moved coastwise.

Subsistence and Technology

• Terracing in vine districts; hydraulic mills and riverine warehouses; standardized casks for wine/salt fish; improved compasses and portolans circulated via Italian pilots.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Sea lanes: Lisbon/Porto ⇄ England/Brittany/Flanders; Cantabria ⇄ Bay of Biscay; pilgrim ferries into A Coruña and Santiago.

• Land: Meseta passes fed Burgos/León; Douro and Minho roads linked to Porto/Viana.

Belief and Symbolism

• Romanesque–early Gothic churches in León, Burgos, Salamanca; Santiago remained a spiritual magnet; military orders guarded roads and bridges.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Diversified port system and mixed Atlantic agriculture buffered shocks; royal charters secured municipal autonomy and customs.

Long-Term Significance

By 1251, Portugal was a stable Atlantic kingdom; León–Castile’s northern cities dominated wool and iron corridors; Basque yards readied the technologies that would power 14th–15th-century Atlantic ventures.

Afonso Henriques' Early Ambitions and the Battle of Cerneja (1137 CE)

Having seized control of Portugal as a young and ambitious leader, Afonso Henriques is determined to break free from León and establish an independent kingdom.

The Invasion of Galicia and the Battle of Cerneja

To assert his power, Afonso Henriques invades Galicia, confronting the forces of Fernando Pérez de Traba and the Galician barons. He achieves a decisive victory at the Battle of Cerneja, further strengthening his position.

Conflict with Alfonso VII and the Treaty of Tuy (1137 CE)

In response to Afonso’s growing defiance, Alfonso VII of León, who has recently proclaimed himself Emperor of Spain, orders his Galician vassals to launch an offensive against Portugal.

At the same time, Muslim forces in the south, recently reinforced by the Almohads from Morocco, pose a serious threat to Portuguese territories.

Faced with pressure on two fronts, Afonso Henriques chooses to negotiate peace. In 1137, he meets with Alfonso VII at Tuy, where they agree to a truce, allowing Afonso to secure his rule over Portugal while preparing for future challenges to his sovereignty.

Afonso Henriques: The Founder of Portugal and the Greatest Christian Conqueror of His Time

A brilliant military commander, Afonso Henriques reconquers more Muslim territory than any other Christian king in Iberia during his reign. His campaigns push the Christian frontier southward, shaping the future Kingdom of Portugal.

Early Expansion and the Establishment of Coimbra as the Capital

• By 1135, Afonso begins securing his newly independent territory, constructing a castle at Leiria as part of his strategy to defend against Muslim incursions.
• He establishes Coimbra as his capital, reinforcing its importance as a political and military stronghold.

The Siege and Conquest of Lisbon (1147 CE)

In 1147, Afonso Henriques capitalizes on internal religious rebellions among the Muslims. With the assistance of a passing fleet of English, Flemish, and German Crusaders, en route to Palestine, he launches a seventeen-week siege of Lisbon, which culminates in the city’s capture.

Expansion into the Alentejo and Papal Recognition

• Taking advantage of continued Muslim infighting and Lisbon’s strategic location, Afonso secures large portions of the Alentejo, advancing south of the Tagus River.
• His relentless military successes lead to official papal recognition in 1179, when Pope Alexander IIIacknowledges Afonso Henriques as King of Portugal. The pope grants him all conquered lands that neighboring kings cannot prove rights over, securing Portugal’s sovereignty.

Legacy: The Birth of a Kingdom

By the time of his death in 1185, Afonso Henriques has carved out an officially recognized Christian kingdom, extending well into Muslim Iberia. His military genius and strategic alliances establish Portugal as a lasting independent monarchy, laying the foundation for its future role in the Age of Exploration.

Afonso Henriques' Path to Kingship (1139–1143 CE)

Following the Peace of Tuy (1137) with Alfonso VII of León, Afonso Henriques redirects his attention southward to confront the Muslim threat.

The Battle of Ourique (1139) and the Assumption of Kingship

• In 1139, Afonso Henriques leads a deep raid into Al-Andalus, engaging and defeating a Muslim army at Ourique, in the Alentejo.
• Following this decisive victory, he begins to be referred to in official documents as King of Portugal, marking his first assertion of independence from León.

Conflict with Alfonso VII and the Joust at Arcos de Valdevez (1140 CE)

• In 1140, Afonso renews his claim to southern Galicia and invades the region, prompting a military response from Alfonso VII, who marches his army into Portugal.
• The two forces meet at Arcos de Valdevez, where they engage in a tournament-style joust—a contest ultimately won by the Portuguese knights.
• This symbolic Portuguese victory reinforces Afonso’s claim to political and military legitimacy.

Recognition of Portugal at the Conference of Zamora (1143 CE)

• In 1143, Afonso Henriques' self-proclaimed title of king is formally recognized at the Conference of Zamora.
• Alfonso VII, who has declared himself Emperor of Spain, acknowledges Afonso as King of Portugal, though still considering him a vassal of the empire.

This event marks the first diplomatic recognition of Portugal as an independent kingdom, paving the way for its full sovereignty, which will be confirmed by papal recognition in 1179.

Monastic Orders and the Settlement of Central Portugal

As the Christian reconquest of Portugal progresses, the vacant territory between the north and south is gradually settled, not only by nobles and warriors but also by various monastic orders, including the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Benedictines.

The Roman Catholic Church plays a crucial role in this process, granting charters to religious orders to build monasteries and cultivate surrounding lands, contributing to both spiritual and agricultural development.

The Benedictines and the Alcobaça Monastery

Among these monastic communities, the Benedictines are the most successful:

• They establish the Monastery of Alcobaça, one of the most important and enduring monasteries in Portugal.
• They cultivate the surrounding land, planting orchards that continue to thrive to this day.

Expansion and Influence of Alcobaça

The monastic domain of Alcobaça grows to include:

• A community of over 5,000 monks, making it one of the largest monastic institutions in Iberia.
• A vast territory stretching from Leiria in the north to Óbidos in the south.
• Control over the port town of Pederneira (modern-day Nazaré), reinforcing its economic and maritime influence.

The monasteries not only serve religious purposes but also contribute to the economic, cultural, and agricultural development of the newly reconquered lands, helping shape Portugal’s medieval landscape.

The Order of the Knights of Saint James and Their Establishment at Palmela

As part of the Christian efforts to secure and settle Portugal's frontier, the Order of the Knights of Saint James (Ordem de Santiago) is granted lands at Palmela, a strategically located town south of the Tagus River.

Role of the Order in the Reconquista

• The Order of Santiago was founded to protect Christian pilgrims and fight against the Moors.
• Their presence at Palmela strengthens Christian control over the Setúbal Peninsula, securing the approaches to Lisbon from the south.
• The knights fortify Palmela, transforming it into a military and religious stronghold that plays a crucial role in the defense of newly conquered lands.

Over time, Palmela becomes one of the key commanderies of the Order of Santiago in Portugal, contributing to the military, agricultural, and administrative consolidation of the kingdom.