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1541 CE
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Henry II’s Edict of Écouen, proclaimed in 1559, lays the ground for systematic persecution of the increasingly powerful French Protestants, or Huguenots, who have became so powerful that ...
...a synod meets in Paris in 1559 to organize a nationwide church of some 2,000 reformed congregations, issuing the so-called Gallican Confession of Faith.
Richelieu had sent Mazarin in 1640 to Savoy, where the regency of Christine, the Duchess of Savoy, and sister of Louis XIII, is disputed by her brothers-in-law, the princes Maurice and Thomas of Savoy, and he succeeds not only in firmly establishing Christine but in winning over the princes to France.
This great service is rewarded by his promotion to the rank of cardinal on the presentation of the King of France in December 1641.
He returns soon after to Rome.
Nearing the end of his life, Richelieu has alienated many people, including Pope Urban VIII.
Richelieu is displeased by the Pope's refusal to name him the papal legate in France; in turn, the Pope does not approve of the administration of the French church, or of French foreign policy.
However, the conflict is largely healed when the Pope grants a cardinalate to Mazarin.
Despite troubled relations with the Roman Catholic Church, Richelieu does not support the complete repudiation of papal authority in France, as is advocated by the Gallicanists.
Alexander VII's pontificate has been shadowed by continual friction with Cardinal Mazarin, advisor to Louis XIV of France, who had opposed him during the negotiations that led to the Peace of Westphalia and who defended the prerogatives of the Gallican Church.
During the conclave he had been hostile to Chigi's election, but was in the end compelled to accept him as a compromise.
However, he prevented Louis XIV from sending the usual embassy of obedience to Alexander VII, and, while he lived, foiled the appointment of a French ambassador to Rome, diplomatic affairs being meantime conducted by cardinal protectors, generally personal enemies of the Pope.
In 1662, the equally hostile Duc de Crequi had been made ambassador.
By his abuse of the traditional right of asylum granted to ambassadorial precincts in Rome, he had precipitated a quarrel between France and the papacy, which resulted in Alexander VII's temporary loss of Avignon and his forced acceptance of the humiliating treaty of Pisa in 1664.
Alexander has also encouraged architecture, and the general improvement of Rome, where houses have been razed to straighten and widen streets and where he has had the opportunity to be a great patron for Gian Lorenzo Bernini: the decorations of the church of Santa Maria del Popolo, titular churches for several of the Chigi cardinals, the Scala Regia, the Chair of St. Peter in the Vatican Basilica.
In particular, he has sponsored Bernini's construction of the beautiful colonnade in the piazza of St. Peter's Basilica.
He dies in May, 1667, and is memorialized in a spectacular tomb by Bernini.
The pontificate of Innocent is marked by the struggle between the absolutism and hegemonic intentions of Louis XIV, and the primacy of the Catholic Church.
Louis as early as 1673 had by his own power extended the right of the régale over the provinces of Languedoc, Guyenne, Provence, and Dauphiné, where it had previously not been exercised.
All the efforts of Innocent to induce Louis XIV to respect the rights and primacy of the Church proved useless.
The King convokes in 1682 an assembly of the French clergy, which adopts the four articles that became known as the Gallican Liberties.
Innocent XI annuls the four articles on April 11, 1682, and refuses his approbation to all future episcopal candidates who had taken part in the assembly.
Noël Alexandre, or Natalis Alexander, a controversial theologian and ecclesiastical historian, had joined the Dominicans at Rouen in 1655, received a doctorate in divinity from the Sorbonne in 1675, and had become regent of studies at Saint-Jacques, Paris.
Pope Innocent XI in 1684 condemns Natalis' chief work, Selecta historiae ecclesiasticae capita, twenty-four volumes (1676–86; “Selected Chapters of Ecclesiastical History”) because of its defense of Gallicanism, a French position advocating restriction of papal power, and for its defense of Jansenism, a religious movement of nonorthodox tendencies in France based on the late Dutch Bishop Cornelius Jansen's heretical doctrines on predestination, free will, and grace.
Alexander XIII has initiated measures that lead eventually to a solution of the disputes between the papacy and Louis XIV of France.
Alexander maintains the condemnation of the Gallican Articles of 1682, which restrict papal authority, and opposes Jansenism.
Known also for his blatant nepotism and worldly outlook, he had died on February 1, 1691.
Antonio Pignatelli, who had been made cardinal in 1681 by Pope Innocent XI, emulates his patron’s pontificate after being elected pope on July 12 as Innocent XII.
Pope Innocent in 1693 extends the ban on money-lending to Ferrara and other Jewish ghettos under his authority.
He breaks the politico-religious deadlock between King Louis XIV of France and the Holy See by influencing Louis to disavow the four Gallican Articles of 1682 issued against him.
In exchange, Innocent agrees to extend the king's right to administer vacant sees.
Antonio Pignatelli, born in Spinazzola (current Puglia) to one of the most aristocratic families of the Kingdom of Naples, which included many Viceroys, and ministers to the crown, was educated at the Jesuit college in Rome.
Becoming in his twentieth year an official of the court of Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644); under successive Popes he had served as nuncio at Florence and Vienna and in Poland and as inquisitor in Malta.
Pope Innocent XI (1676–1689), had created Pignatelli Cardinal-Priest of San Pancrazio in 1681 and archbishop of Naples.
Cardinal Pignatelli had emerged as a compromise candidate between the cardinals of France and the Holy Roman Empire after the conclave held in the wake of the death of Alexander VIII had gone on for five months.
As Innocent XII, immediately after his election on July 12, 1691,the new pope had declared against the nepotism which had too much and too long been one of the greatest scandals of the Papacy; the bull Romanum decet Pontificem, issued in 1692, had banned the curial office of the Cardinal Nephew and prohibited Popes at all times from bestowing estates, offices, or revenues on any relative; furthermore, only one relative, "if otherwise suitable", was to be raised to the cardinalate.
He has sought at the same time to check the simoniacal tendencies in the practices of the apostolic chamber, and in connection with this to introduce a simpler and more economical manner of life into his court.
Innocent XII has said that "the poor were his nephews", comparing his public beneficence to the nepotism of many predecessors.
He has introduced various reforms into the States of the Church, and for the better administration of justice had erected the Forum Innocentianum.
Innocent XII had in 1693 compelled the French bishops to retract the four propositions relating to the Gallican Liberties which had been formulated by the assembly of 1682.
He had in 1699 decided in favor of Jacques-Benigne Bossuet in that prelate's controversy with Fénelon about the Explication des Maximes des Saints sur la Vie Intérieure of the latter.
Innocent XII's pontificate contrasts with that of a series of predecessors in having marked leanings towards France instead of Germany.
A benevolent, self-abnegating and pious pontiff, Innocent XII is the last pope to have a beard in the modern period.
He dies on September 27, 1700 and is succeeded by Giovanni Francesco Albani as Pope Clement XI.
His tomb at St. Peter's Basilica is sculpted by Filippo della Valle.
Albani was born in Urbino, into a noble family that had established itself there from northern Albania in the fifteenth century and were originally soldiers of Skanderbeg against the Ottoman Empire.
Governor of Rieti and Urbino, he had been created Cardinal-Deacon of S. Maria in Aquiro by Pope Alexander VIII.
The Parlement issues its Extraits des assertions assembled from passages from Jesuit theologians and canonists, in which they are alleged to teach every sort of immorality and error.
On August 6, 1762, the final arrêt is proposed to the Parlement by the Advocate General Joly de Fleury, condemning the Society to extinction, but the king's intervention brings eight months' delay and in the meantime a compromise is suggested by the Court.
If the French Jesuits will separate from the Society headed by the Jesuit General directly under the pope's authority and come under a French vicar, with French customs, as with the Gallican Church, the Crown will still protect them.
The French Jesuits, rejecting Gallicanism, refuse to consent.