The Romans are compelled to pay large sums in tribute to the Dacians for maintaining peace, as German revolts along the Rhine are requiring augmented military force in Moesia.

This humiliating situation lasts until Trajan becomes Emperor in 98.

Immediately, he begins preparations for wars that will result in the expansion of the Roman Empire to its maximum extent.

Cappadocia had been established in CE 17 as an imperial province, meaning that its governor (legatus Augusti) is directly appointed by the emperor.

As the Empire's northeasternmost province, it retains a permanent military garrison of two legions and several Auxiliary troops.

At the end of the first century under Emperor Trajan, the province also incorporates the regions of Pontus and Armenia Minor.

Jewish authorities in Iudaea by the end of the first century CE have adopted policies aimed at sharply differentiating Christians from Jews.

Few details are known about the life of Clement, said to have been an early bishop of Rome.

According to Tertullian, Clement was consecrated by Saint Peter, and he is known to have been a leading member of the church in Rome in the late first century.

Early church lists place him as the second or third bishop of Rome after Saint Peter.

The Liber Pontificalis presents a list that makes Pope Linus the second in the line of bishops of Rome, with Peter as first; but at the same time it states that Peter ordained two bishops, Linus and Pope Cletus, for the priestly service of the community, devoting himself instead to prayer and preaching, and that it was to Clement that he entrusted the Church as a whole, appointing him as his successor.

Tertullian too makes Clement the immediate successor of Peter.

And while in one of his works Jerome gives Clement as "the fourth bishop of Rome after Peter" (not in the sense of fourth successor of Peter, but fourth in a series that included Peter), he adds that "most of the Latins think that Clement was second after the apostle".

Clement is put after Linus and Cletus/Anacletus in the earliest account from around 180, that of Irenaeus, who is followed by Eusebius of Caesarea.

The meaning of these early reports is unclear, given the lack of evidence for monarchical episcopacy in Rome at so early a date.

Clement's only genuine extant writing is his letter to the church at Corinth (1 Clement), in response to a dispute in which certain presbyters of the Corinthian church had been deposed.

He asserted the authority of the presbyters as rulers of the church, on the grounds that the Apostles had appointed such.

It was read in church, along with other epistles, some of which later became Christian canon; and is one of the oldest extant Christian documents outside the New Testament.

This important work is the first to affirm the apostolic authority of the clergy.

A second epistle, 2 Clement, was attributed to Clement although recent scholarship suggests it to be a homily by another author.

In the case of the first epistle the scholarly consensus is overwhelmingly in favor of its authenticity, whereas by contrast it is widely accepted that the second epistle is not to be attributed to Clement.

Many scholars believe 1 Clement was written around the same time as the Book of Revelation, around 95-97 CE.

Neither 1 nor 2 Clement is accepted in the canonical New Testament, but they are part of the Apostolic Fathers collection.

The First Epistle of Clement, (literally, Clement to Corinth; Greek, Klēmentos pros Korinthious) is a letter addressed to the Christians in the city of Corinth.

Dating from the late first or early second century, the letter ranks with the anonymous Didache as one of the earliest—if not the earliest—of extant Christian documents outside the canonical New Testament.

The First Epistle does not contain Clement's name, instead being addressed by "the Church of God which sojourneth in Rome to the Church of God which sojourneth in Corinth."

The traditional date for Clement's epistle, which has been elicited by the Epistle to the Hebrews' call for leadership from the church in Rome and is permeated with the earlier letter's influence, is at the end of the reign of Domitian, or c. 96 CE, by taking the phrase "sudden and repeated misfortunes and hindrances which have befallen us" for a reference to persecutions under Domitian.

An indication of the date comes from the fact that the church at Rome is called "ancient" and that the presbyters installed by the apostles have died (44:2), and a second ecclesiastical generation has also passed on (44:3).

The letter was occasioned by a dispute in Corinth, which had led to the removal from office of several presbyters.

Since none of the presbyters were charged with moral offenses, Clement charged that their removal was high-handed and unjustifiable.

The letter is extremely lengthy—it is twice as long as the Epistle to the Hebrews—and includes several references, as Scripture, to the Old Testament, of which the author demonstrates a knowledge.

The letter reveals contemporary church organization, belief, and practice and demonstrates the author’s familiarity with Greek Stoic philosophy and mythology.

Old Bering Sea Culture (100–243 CE)

Ivory Ornamentation, Maritime Mastery, and Cross-Strait Connections

The Old Bering Sea culture (OBS) emerged in the early centuries of the Common Era along the Bering Strait, its sites scattered across northwestern Alaska, the Chukotka Peninsula, and intermediary islands like St. Lawrence and the Diomedes. OBS communities thrived in an environment defined by icy seas and rich marine resources, building a way of life that foreshadowed later Thule traditions.

Their settlements were small but strategic, perched on coasts close to sea-mammal migration routes. Houses were semi-subterranean, dug into permafrost for insulation, their superstructures reinforced with driftwood and whalebone. Within these homes, families crafted some of the most distinctive artifacts of the Arctic world. OBS artisans are celebrated for their elaborately engraved ivory: harpoon heads, knife handles, and ornaments decorated with sweeping curvilinear and geometric motifs. Many of these designs suggest symbolic or spiritual significance, blending functionality with artistry.

Economically, OBS people were consummate marine hunters. Seals, walrus, and small whales formed the subsistence base, augmented by caribou, birds, and fish. Harpoon technology was advanced, with toggling heads designed to secure prey in turbulent waters. Dog traction and umiak-style boats likely expanded mobility, enabling exchange and kinship ties across the Strait.

Most significantly, the Old Bering Sea horizon demonstrates the interconnectedness of Alaska and Siberia. Similarities in house types, tools, and ornament indicate sustained cross-Strait contact. OBS thus represents not an isolated community, but a cultural zone bridging continents, one that set the foundation for the later Thule expansion eastward across the Arctic.

The second century CE is a time of rebellion in Giao Chi, Cuu Chan, and Nhat Nam, largely due to the declining quality of the Han administrators, who concentrate their energies on making their fortunes and returning north as soon as possible.

Revolts against corrupt and repressive Chinese officials are often led by the Han-Viet families.

The fall of the Han dynasty in China in 220 further strengthens the allegiance of the Han-Viet ruling elite to their new society and gives them a sense of their own independent political power.

Meanwhile, among the peasant class there is also a heightened sense of identity fostered by the spread of Buddhism by sea from India to Vietnam by the early third century.

The new religion is often adapted to blend with indigenous religions.

Buddhist temples are sometimes dedicated to the monsoon season, for example, or identified with the guardian spirit of agricultural fertility.

Although ruling-class Vietnamese tend to cling to Confucianism, various local rulers patronize the Buddhist religion, thus helping to legitimize their own rule in the eyes of the common people.

A Han-Viet ruling class owning large tracts of rice lands arises in the first and second centuries CE.

More than one hundred and twenty brick Han tombs will be excavated in northern Vietnam, indicating Han families that, rather than returning to China, had become members of their adopted society and were no longer, strictly speaking, Chinese.

Although they brought Chinese vocabulary and technical terms into their new culture, after a generation or two, they probably spoke Vietnamese.

Funan, the earliest of the Indianized states, generally is considered by Cambodians to have been the first Khmer kingdom in the area.

Founded in the first century CE, Funan is located on the lower reaches of the Mekong River in the delta area.

Its capital, Vyadhapura, probably was located near the present-day town of Phumi Banam in Prey Veng Province.

The earliest historical reference to Funan is a Chinese description of a mission that visits the country in the third century CE.

The name Funan derives from the Chinese rendition of the old Khmer word bnam (mountain).

What the Funanese call themselves, however, is not known.

The people of mainland and insular Southeast Asia are responding to the stimulus of a civilization that had arisen in India during the previous millennium at about the time that Western Europe is absorbing the classical culture and institutions of the Mediterranean.

The Indianization of Southeast Asia happens as a consequence of the increasing trade in the Indian Ocean.

Vedic and Hindu religion, political thought, literature, mythology, and artistic motifs gradually became integral elements in local Southeast Asian cultures.

The caste system will never be adopted, but Indianization stimulates the rise of highly organized, centralized states.

Maritime East Asia (100–243 CE): Decline of Han Dynasty and Increasing Turbulence

Between 100 CE and 243 CE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—faces mounting internal struggles, administrative breakdown, and rebellions that mark the decline and eventual collapse of the Han dynasty.

Continued Han Rule and Increasing Strains

After a brief interruption by Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty (9–24 CE), the Han dynasty had been restored and continues for nearly two centuries more. However, the restored Han rulers struggle to manage a vastly expanded population, increasing economic wealth paired with financial instability, and increasingly complex bureaucratic and political institutions. Administrative corruption spreads widely, a classic symptom of dynastic decline.

Peasant and Taoist Rebellions

Persistent dissatisfaction among peasants leads to widespread agrarian rebellions, exacerbating the empire's instability. Taoist-inspired movements, notably the Yellow Turban Rebellion, challenge Han authority, advocating egalitarian ideals and drawing massive popular support, further weakening imperial governance and draining critical resources from central authority.

Fragmentation and Collapse

The cumulative effect of internal corruption, administrative inefficiency, and recurrent rebellions severely undermines the Han dynasty's stability. By 220 CE, the Han Empire formally collapses, fragmenting into several competing states. This collapse ushers in the Three Kingdoms Period, profoundly altering China's political and social landscape for centuries.

Legacy of the Age: Transition and Fragmentation

Thus, the age from 100 to 243 CE is characterized by mounting administrative strain, widespread popular discontent, and internal rebellions culminating in the definitive collapse of the Han dynasty. These events set the stage for a prolonged period of fragmentation, warfare, and eventual reorganization that reshapes East Asian political dynamics.