Factors that aided the rise to supremacy…

Conflicting accounts shroud the details of the fall of the Parthian Empire and subsequent rise of the Sassanid Empire in mystery.

One Babak, a descendant of a line of the priests of the goddess Anahita, was originally the ruler of a region called Kheir.

However, by the year 200, he had managed to overthrow Gocihr, and appoint himself as the new ruler of the Bazrangids.

His mother, Rodhagh, was the daughter of the provincial governor of Persis.

Babak and his eldest son Shapur managed to expand their power over all of Persis.

The subsequent events are unclear, due to the sketchy nature of the sources.

It is certain, however, that following the death of Babak, Ardashir, who at the time was the governor of Darabgird, got involved in a power struggle of his own with his elder brother Shapur.

Sources reveal that Shapur, leaving for a meeting with his brother, was killed when the roof of a building collapsed on him.

By the year 208, over the protests of his other brothers who were put to death, Ardashir had declared himself ruler of Persis.

Once Ardashir was appointed Shahenshah, he had moved his capital further to the south of Persis and founded Ardashir-Khwarrah (formerly Gur, modern day Firuzabad), constructing several great palaces and carving rock reliefs.

The city, well supported by high mountains and easily defendable through narrow passes, has become the center of Ardashir's efforts to gain more power.

The city is surrounded by a high, circular wall, probably copied from that of Darabgird, and on the north-side includes a large palace, remains of which still survive today.

After establishing his rule over Persis, Ardashir I has rapidly extended his territory, demanding fealty from the local princes of Fars, and gaining control over the neighboring provinces of Kerman, Isfahan, Susiana and Mesene.

This expansion quickly comes to the attention of Artabanus IV, the Parthian king, who initially orders the governor of Khuzestan to wage war against Ardashir in 224, but the battles are victories for Ardashir.

Artabanus, in a second attempt to destroy Ardashir, meets his opponent in battle at Hormozgan, near the modern city of Bandar Abbas, where the Parthian army is completely defeated, and Artabanus is killed.

According to one account, Ardashir and Artabanus fought in close combat on horseback.

Ardashir pretended to flee, turned around in the saddle and shot Artabanus through the heart.

This ends the four-hundred-year rule of the Arsacid Dynasty.

Following the death of the Parthian ruler, Ardashir I goes on to invade the western provinces of the now defunct Parthian Empire.

The division of the Han empire into three states has become firmly established, particularly after Liu Bei's death in 223.

Liu Bei's prime minister Zhuge Liang, serving as regent for Liu Shan, has reestablished the alliance with Sun, causing Cao Wei to have to defend itself on two fronts and unable to conquer either.

Exasperated, Cao makes a famous comment in 225 that "Heaven created the Yangtze to divide the north and the south."

The Wu administration is known for its efficiency early in the reign of Sun Quan, who displays a knack for listening to correct advice and for delegating authorities to the proper individuals.

For example, he correctly trusts the faithful Lu Xun and Zhuge Jin, so much so that he makes a duplicate imperial seal and leaves it with Lu Xun; whenever he corresponds with Shu's emperor Liu Shan or regent Zhuge Liang, he delivers the letter to Lu Xun first (as Lu's post is near the Shu border), and then if, in Lu's opinion, changes are needed, Lu revises the letter and then restamps it with Sun's imperial seal.

Further, Lu Xun and Zhuge Jin are authorized to coordinate their actions with Shu without prior imperial approval.

Sun Quan treats his high level officials as friends and addresses them accordingly (with style names), and in accordance they dedicate all effort to Wu's preservation.

He also knows the proper roles for officials that he trusts; for example, in 225, when selecting a chancellor, while the key officials all respect Zhang Zhao greatly and want him to be chancellor, Sun Quan declines, reasoning that while he respects Zhang greatly, a chancellor needs to handle all affairs of state, and Zhang, while capable, has such strong opinions that he will surely be in conflict with Sun Quan and other officials at all times.

He also repeatedly promotes his official Lü Fan even though, while he was young, Lü Fan had informed on Quan to his father Sun Ce about his improper spending habits, understanding that Lü did so only out of loyalty to Sun Ce.

In 224 and 225, Cao Pi again makes attacks on Wu, but each time the Wu forces are able to repel Wei's with relative ease—so easily that Cao Pi makes the comment, "Heaven created the Yangtze to divide the north and south."

Palmyra, an important city located in an oasis two hundred and fifteen kilometers northeast of Damascus and one hundred and eighty kilometers southwest of the Euphrates at Deir ez-Zor, has long been a vital caravan stop for travelers crossing the Syrian desert and is known as the Bride of the Desert.

The earliest documented reference to the city by its Semitic name Tadmor, Tadmur or Tudmur (which means "the town that repels" in Amorite and "the indomitable town" in Aramaic) is recorded in Babylonian tablets found in Mari.

Having been made part of the Roman province of Syria during the reign of Tiberius (14–37 CE), Palmyra has steadily grown in importance as a trade route linking Persia, India, China, and the Roman Empire.

In 129, Hadrian had visited the city and was so enthralled by it that he had proclaimed it a free city and renamed it Palmyra Hadriana.

Beginning in 224, Palmyra's trade diminishes as the Sassanids occupy the mouth of the Tigris and the Euphrates.

Sun Quan is able to increase his effective control over Jiao Province (present-day northern Vietnam) when, in late 226, his general Lü Dai is able to defeat the warlord Shi Hui and end the effective independence that the Shi clan had.

In addition, the several independent kingdoms in modern Cambodia, Laos, and southern Vietnam all became Wu vassals as well.

The choice of empress had been an immediate issue after Cao Pi became emperor in 220.

Lady Zhen was his wife, but by this point had long lost favor due to a variety of reasons including the struggle she had with a favorite concubine of Cao's, Guo Nüwang.

Lady Guo used the unlikely possibility that Zhen's son Cao Rui might be biologically Yuan Xi's son to full advantage in creating conflicts between Cao Pi and Lady Zhen.

Cao therefore had refused to summon Lady Zhen to Luoyang after he ascended the throne but instead ordered her to remain at Yecheng, which caused Lady Zhen to be resentful.

When words of her resentment reached Cao, he became angry and forced her to commit suicide.

In 222, Cao had created Consort Guo empress.

Empress Guo, however, is without make issue.

Lady Zhen's son Cao Rui is the oldest of Cao Pi's sons, but because she had been put to death and because of Cao Pi's lingering doubt as to his paternity, has not been created crown prince.

but instead had been made only the Prince of Pingyuan following Cao Pi's ascension.

Cao Pi, however, does not appear to have seriously considered any other son as heir.

(It might have been because the other sons were all significantly younger, although their ages were not recorded in history.)

In the summer of 226, when Cao Pi is seriously ill, he finally creates Prince Rui crown prince.

On his deathbed, he entrusts his successor to the care of Cao Zhen, Chen Qun, and Sima Yi.

Following Cao Pi's death, Prince Rui ascends the throne at the young age of twenty-one.

Sun Quan himself is, however, equally unsuccessful in efforts to make major attacks on Wei.

After Cao Pi's death in 226, for example, Sun Quan launches an attack on Wei's Jiangxia prefecture (in present-day Xiaogan, Hubei) but is forced to withdraw as soon as Wei reinforcements arrive.

Alexander’s reign contains some of the last major building works constructed in Rome before the reign of Diocletian.

He builds the last of the eleven ancient aqueducts of Rome, the twenty-two kilometer long Aqua Alexandrina, to supply his enlargement of the Thermae of Nero, which have been renamed after the emperor (Thermae Alexandrinae).

It had been commonly expected when Cao Rui became emperor that his wife, Princess Yu, would be created empress, but she was not.

Rather, he creates a favorite concubine, Consort Mao, empress in 227.

Princess Yu is exiled back to their original palace.

He loves Empress Mao dearly, and a number of her relatives, including her father and brother, become honored officials (but without actual powers).