Theodor Schwann's many contributions to biology include…

The North and South, although enemies in war, remain dependent on each other economically.

Northern textile mills need Southern cotton; the Union Army itself uses Southern cotton in its tents and uniforms.

Although the Union military command prefers an outright ban on trade, President Lincoln continues to allow limited trade in Southern cotton.

He insists, however, that such trade be licensed by the Treasury Department and the army.

As commander of the Department of the Tennessee, General Grant is charged with issuing trade licenses in his area.

As cotton prices soar in the North, unlicensed traders bribe Union officers to allow them to buy Southern cotton without a permit.

In the fall of 1862, Grant's headquarters are besieged by merchants seeking trade permits.

When Grant's own father Jesse appears one day seeking trade licenses for a group of Cincinnati merchants, some of whom are Jews, Grant's frustration overflows.

A handful of the black marketeers are Jews, although the great majority are not.

In the emotional climate of the war zone, ancient prejudices flourish; the terms “Jew,”, “profiteer”, “speculator” and “trader” are employed interchangeably.

Union commanding General Henry W. Halleck links “traitors and Jew peddlers”.

Grant shares Halleck's mentality, describing “the Israelites” as “an intolerable nuisance”.

In November 1862, convinced that the black market in cotton is organized “mostly by Jews and other unprincipled traders”, Grant orders that ”no Jews are to be permitted to travel on the railroad southward [into the Department of the Tennessee] from any point”, nor are they to be granted trade licenses.

“... they are such an intolerable nuisance that the department must be purged of them.”

General Grant issues his infamous General Order No. 11 of December 11, 1862,  which reads,

“The Jews, as a class violating every regulation of trade established by the Treasury Department and also department orders, are hereby expelled from the department within twenty-four hours from the receipt of this order.

Post commanders will see to it that all of this class of people be furnished passes and required to leave, and any one returning after such notification will be arrested and held in confinement until an opportunity occurs of sending them out as prisoners, unless furnished with permit from headquarters.

No passes will be given these people to visit headquarters for the purpose of making personal application of trade permits.”

Cesar J. Kaskel of Paducah, Kentucky, immediately sets out for Washington to put the matter before President Lincoln.

Ohio Congressman John A. Gurley escorts him to the White House, where Kaskel apprises the president of what Grant had done.

Lincoln writes a note to General-in-Chief H. W. Halleck, who sends a telegram to General Grant forthwith:

“A paper purporting to be General Orders, No. 11, issued by you December 17, has been presented here.

By its terms, it expells all Jews from your department.

If such an order has been issued, it will be immediately revoked.” Halleck continues.

“The President has no objection to your expelling traitors and Jew peddlers, which, I suppose, was the object of your order; but, as it is in terms proscribed an entire religious class, some of whom are fighting in our ranks, the President deemed it necessary to revoke it.”

Grant rescinds the offensive decree the following day.