odfrid Haraldsson and Rorik’s Attempt to Seize…

The peace between Bulgaria and Eastern Francia is restored as a result of the military actions in 855, and Rastislav is forced to fight against Louis alone.

The fifteen-year-old Emperor Michael, after quarreling with his mother, connives at the murder of Theoktistos by his maternal uncle Bardas in November 855.

The Frankish emperor Lothair I, who rules the “middle realm” of what had been Charlemagne's empire, divides his realm in September 855, allotting Italy to his eldest son and co-emperor Louis II, who had governed the peninsula since 844.

After Lothair's death a few weeks later, Louis II becomes sole emperor, a dignity that implies rule over only part of the Carolingian dominions, without suzerainty over the whole.

He declares in 855 that no Jews can remain within his kingdom.

Pope Leo has held three synods, one in 850 that was distinguished by the presence of Holy Roman Emperor Louis II, but the other two are of little importance.

The history of the papal struggle with Hincmar of Reims, which begins during Leo's pontificate, belongs properly to that of Nicholas I. Leo dies on July 17, 855 and is buried in St. Peter's Basilica.

Benedict III is Leo's immediate successor, beginning his papacy on September 29, 855.

A medieval tradition claimed that a woman, Pope Joan, succeeded him, disguising herself as a man, but Joan is generally believed to be fictitious.

Little is known of Benedict's life before his papacy.

He was educated and lived in Rome and was cardinal priest of the church of San Callisto at the time of his election.

Benedict has a reputation for learning and piety.

He had been elected upon the refusal of Hadrian, the initial choice of the clergy and people.

A group of important people prefer a different candidate, Anastasius.

This latter group has Benedict's election disavowed and Anastasius installed.

However, popular opinion is so strong that Benedict's consecration is allowed.

The envoys of Emperor Louis II force Benedict to handle Anastasius and his adherents leniently.

The schism helps to weaken the hold of the emperors upon the popes, especially upon their elections.

The Creation of Lotharingia (855): Emperor Lothair I’s Final Act

In 855, Emperor Lothair I, ruler of Middle Francia, decides to divide his kingdom among his sons before abdicating and retiring to the monastery of Prüm, where he dies soon after. His decision permanently fragments the Middle Kingdom, creating new political entities that will shape the future of medieval Europe.

The Division of Middle Francia

Lothair I's empire is split among his three sons:

1. Louis II → Receives Italy, inheriting the imperial title and the crown of Lombardy.
2. Lothair II → Inherits the northern part of Middle Francia, including Alsace-Lorraine and much of the present-day Low Countries.
3. Charles of Provence → Takes control of Provence, which extends from Burgundy to the Mediterranean coast.

The Birth of Lotharingia

• The realm of Lothair II comes to be known as Lotharingia, named after him.
• It stretches from the North Sea to the Alps, including key territories such as:
  • Frisia (modern Belgium and the Netherlands).
  • Alsace-Lorraine (a contested region between France and Germany for centuries).
  • Burgundy and Upper Lorraine.
• Unlike West Francia (France) and East Francia (Germany), which develop into stable medieval kingdoms, Lotharingia remains politically unstable, frequently contested by France and Germany.

The Significance of Lotharingia

• A Kingdom Without a Lasting Identity → While West and East Francia gradually evolve into France and Germany, Lotharingia becomes a battleground, torn between rival Carolingian and later Holy Roman Empire factions.
• The Root of Franco-German Rivalry → The division of Lotharingia sets the stage for centuries of territorial disputes over Alsace-Lorraine and the Low Countries.
• Eventual Absorption → After Lothair II's death in 869, Lotharingia is partitioned between West Francia and East Francia, ensuring that the region remains divided and contested for generations.

Thus, Lotharingia, born from Lothair I’s abdication, becomes a short-lived but historically significant kingdom, shaping the political geography of medieval Europe and fueling future conflicts between France and the Holy Roman Empire.

Lothair, following his abdication, enters the monastery of Prum, where on September 29 he dies.

Æthelwulf, in one of his first acts as King of Wessex, had split the kingdom, giving the eastern half, including Kent, Essex, Surrey, and Sussex, to his eldest son Æthelstan (not to be confused with the later Athelstan the Glorious).

Æthelwulf keeps the ancient, western side of Wessex (Hampshire, Wiltshire, Dorset, and Devon) for himself.

Æthelwulf and his first wife, Osburh, had had five sons and a daughter.

After Æthelstan came Æthelbald, Æthelbert, Æthelred, and Alfred.

Each of his sons, with the exception of Æthelstan, will succeed to the throne.

Alfred, the youngest, has been praised as one of the greatest kings to ever reign in Britain.

Æthelwulf's only daughter, Æthelswith had been married as a child to King Burgred of Mercia.

Religion has always been an important part of Æthelwulf's life.

As early as the first year of his reign he had planned a pilgrimage to Rome.

Due to the ongoing and increasing raids he felt the need to appeal to the Christian God for help against an enemy "so agile, and numerous, and profane."

Æthelwulf in 853 had sent his son Alfred, a child of about four years, to Rome.

Æthelwulf follows Alfred to Rome in 855, about a year after the death of his wife Osburga, after granting churches in the kingdom of Wessex the right to receive tithes.

Æthelbald had witnessed his father's charters as a kings' son in the 840s, and in 850 had received the rank of Ealdorman.

He becomes regent of Wessex in 855 while his father visits Rome, his elder brother Æthelstan having died in 851 or shortly after.

His younger brother Æthelbert becomes king of Kent.

Between 856 and 867 CE, East Central Europe—comprising modern-day Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and the eastern parts of Germany and Austria east of 10°E and north of a line from approximately 48.2°N at 10°E to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—continued its political and cultural consolidation. Great Moravia, under Rastislav, asserted further autonomy from Carolingian rule, while the Liudolfing dynasty in Saxony solidified its influential position. Simultaneously, Louis the German’s reign in East Francia strengthened frontier stability, laying the foundations for future territorial expansion and the political structures of medieval Europe.

Political and Military Developments

Rastislav’s Assertion of Moravian Independence

• Rastislav (r. 846–870) deepened Moravia’s diplomatic autonomy from the Carolingians, establishing closer ties with Byzantium, and inviting missionaries Cyril and Methodius (in 863) to strengthen Moravian cultural and religious independence.

Solidification of Liudolfing Power in Saxony

• Saxon nobility under the leadership of the Liudolfing dynasty, notably Liudolf (d. 866), consolidated its regional influence, with significant territorial expansions and ecclesiastical foundations, reinforcing its dominance and prestige.

Stability and Governance in East Francia

• Under the steady governance of Louis the German, East Francia, including Bavaria, Thuringia, and Saxony, remained politically stable, strengthening frontier territories and enhancing administrative integration.

Economic and Technological Developments

Continued Regional Economic Prosperity

• Trade networks across Moravia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia flourished, supporting commerce in metals, agricultural produce, textiles, and luxury items, fostering sustained economic growth and urban prosperity.

Development of Infrastructure and Defense

• Continued improvements in fortifications, roads, and administrative infrastructure enhanced regional security, facilitating more efficient economic activity and military readiness along Carolingian frontier zones.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Moravian Cultural and Religious Independence

• Rastislav’s invitation of Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius initiated significant cultural and religious developments, notably the introduction of the Slavic (Glagolitic) alphabet, fostering Moravia’s unique cultural identity.

Carolingian-Saxon Cultural Integration

• Saxony’s integration into Carolingian culture deepened through ecclesiastical patronage, monastery foundations, and adoption of Frankish administrative practices, reinforcing the cultural identity of the Saxon aristocracy.

Settlement and Urban Development

Growth of Moravian Urban Centers

• Major Moravian settlements experienced continued expansion, becoming prominent political and cultural hubs, pivotal in the administrative and religious life of Great Moravia.

Stability in Saxon, Bavarian, and Thuringian Towns

• Carolingian governance maintained stable urban growth in Saxony, Bavaria, and Thuringia, supported by robust trade and administrative efficiency, laying the groundwork for future medieval urban centers.

Social and Religious Developments

Christianization and Ecclesiastical Consolidation

• Christian missionary activities intensified across Moravia and Saxony, notably through the influence of Cyril and Methodius in Great Moravia, laying important ecclesiastical foundations and reinforcing religious integration.

Strengthened Dynastic Structures

• The increasing prominence of powerful dynasties, notably the Liudolfings in Saxony and Mojmirid rulers in Moravia, further reinforced hierarchical social structures, shaping regional political and social developments significantly.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era 856–867 CE was pivotal in solidifying political autonomy in Great Moravia under Rastislav and strengthening the Saxon Liudolfing dynasty, profoundly shaping East Central Europe's medieval trajectory. These developments, complemented by stable Carolingian frontier governance under Louis the German, laid lasting political, cultural, and economic foundations, significantly influencing the historical landscape of East Central Europe for generations.

The evangelizing brothers Cyril and Methodius create the Cyrillic alphabet used in modern Slavic languages.

At issue in the Photian Schism, a four-year break between the episcopal sees of Rome and Constantinople, is not accusations of heresy but rather the papal claim to jurisdiction in the East.

The schism arises largely as a struggle for ecclesiastical control of the southern Balkans and because of a personality clash between the heads of the two sees, both of whom are elected in the same year (858) and both of whose reigns end in 867, by death in the case of the Pope, by the first of two depositions for the Patriarch.

The Photian Schism thus differs from what will occur in the eleventh century, when the pope's authority as a first among equals is challenged on the grounds of having lost that authority through heresy.