Greek culture makes a deep impression on the seacoast and riverbank Thracian villages, where the way of life develops more rapidly than in less accessible areas.

…near the mouth of the Danube at Callatis (present-day Mangalia), and at …

…Tomis (present-day Constanta), founded in the seventh century BCE by Greek settlers from Miletus in Anatolia.

The Middle East: 693–682 BCE

Cimmerian Invasions and Lydian Resilience

During this era, western Anatolia witnesses continued turmoil as the nomadic Cimmerians, driven by earlier conflicts with the Assyrians and Scythians, intensify their attacks on the rising power of Lydia. The Cimmerian raids severely disrupt the economic stability and social structure of Lydia, the newly established regional hegemon succeeding the now-destroyed Phrygian kingdom. Ultimately, these relentless incursions are halted by the Scythians, another formidable nomadic group from the Eurasian steppes, who force the Cimmerians eastward into Cappadocia, reducing their immediate threat to western Anatolia.

Phrygia’s Aftermath and Cultural Legacy

Following its devastating collapse at the hands of the Cimmerians in the previous era, Phrygia now survives primarily as a geographic and cultural expression rather than an independent political entity. Under successive foreign rulers of Anatolia, the region’s population declines significantly in status, with many Phrygians captured and sold into slavery, especially to Greek merchants and cities. Despite losing political autonomy, Phrygia’s rich cultural legacy endures, influencing regional customs, mythology, and artistic traditions well beyond its political demise.

This era (693–682 BCE) underscores a phase of turbulence and reshaping in western Anatolia, marked by shifting balances of power and the continuing influence of migratory invasions that redefine the region’s political and cultural landscape.

The Cimmerians harry Lydia, the new hegemon of western Anatolia, until being finally driven into Cappadocia by the Scythians.

Phrygia will linger as a geographic expression under the successive rulers of Anatolia; the Greeks will value its people as slaves.

Sennacherib builds a conduit to transport water from a river about thirty-four miles (fifty-five kilometers) distant to his fields and gardens in Nineveh in 691 BCE.

Assyrian engineers construct a gently sloping masonry channel, and where it passes over a valley, build an arched bridge thirty feet (nine meters) high to support it.

Chaldean and Aramaean tribes, aided by the Elamites across the Persian Gulf, stage another revolt against the Assyrian sub-king in Babylon.

Sennacherib launches a military campaign to subdue the rebels.

The Assyrians defeat the Chaldeans and Elamites in 691 at the inconclusive Battle of Halule on the Diyala River but suffer severe battle losses, causing Sennacherib to cease campaigning for nearly two years.

Mushezib-Marduk, the Chaldean prince chosen as King of Babylon, loses his ally when the Elamite king Humban-Numena III suffers a stroke later this same year, an opportunity Sennacherib quickly seizes by attacking Babylon, and eventually capturing it after a nine-month siege.

The Assyrians raze the city, then divert the waters of the Arakhatu Canal to flood the ruins, rendering Babylon’s inner city virtually uninhabitable.

The Assyrians begin reconstruction of the destroyed city in 683.

Near East (693–682 BCE): Consolidation, Vassalage, and Judah’s Survival

Assyrian Consolidation of Coastal Palestine

By the early seventh century BCE, the Assyrian Empire firmly consolidates control over the coastal cities of Palestine. Gaza, Ashkelon, Ekron, Ashdod, and likely Gath become established as Assyrian vassal states, compelled into tributary alliances through military pressure and political diplomacy. These cities, formerly influential Philistine centers, now function primarily within the larger economic and strategic frameworks imposed by Assyria, ensuring the empire’s dominance across the critical Mediterranean coastal trade routes.

Jerusalem’s Fragile Independence

In Judah, King Hezekiah has barely managed to preserve Jerusalem amidst Assyrian aggression. Though Jerusalem withstands siege—reportedly due to a plague among the Assyrian forces described in biblical texts as divine intervention—virtually all other major Judahite centers have suffered severe destruction. Hezekiah’s resistance, although costly, secures a precarious autonomy for the southern kingdom, highlighting Jerusalem’s emerging significance as the spiritual and political center of Judah.

Succession and New Realities in Judah

In 687 BCE, King Hezekiah dies and is succeeded by his son, Manasseh. Marking a notable shift, Manasseh’s reign departs significantly from his father’s religious and political policies. Where Hezekiah sought to align Judah closely with exclusive Yahwistic worship and resisted Assyrian overlordship, Manasseh reverses these policies, aligning more closely with Assyrian interests and restoring religious pluralism, a move often criticized by later biblical tradition. This alignment ensures Judah's temporary stability under continued Assyrian dominance but begins a complex legacy of internal religious contention.

Legacy of the Era

The era 693–682 BCE encapsulates the tension between imperial subjugation and local sovereignty. Judah’s survival, narrowly maintained by Hezekiah, transitions into a period of pragmatic alignment under Manasseh, reflecting broader regional patterns of vassalage and accommodation. The consolidation of Assyrian rule over Philistine cities, coupled with Judah’s adaptive strategies under successive rulers, establishes political frameworks that will influence Near Eastern geopolitics profoundly in subsequent generations.

Gaza, …

…Ashkelon, …