Hor-Aha, considered to be the second Pharaoh…

Djer, the third king of the First dynasty, ruled for fifty-seven years according to Manetho but modern research by Toby Wilkinson, in Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt, stresses that the near contemporary and therefore more accurate Palermo Stone document ascribes Djer a reign of "41 complete and partial years."

He probably fought several battles against the Libyans in the Nile delta.

Like his predecessor, Hor-Aha, he was buried in the holy place Abydos.

Close to his grave is another that probably belongs to his wife Merneith, mother of the later king Den, and possibly his regent during his youth.

His tomb will be revered beginning in the Eighteenth dynasty as the tomb of Osiris.

Djer may have pushed Egypt’s boundaries farther south beyond the First Cataract to the Wadi Halfa in present Sudan, where archaeologists will find an inscription of his name (of questioned authenticity, however).

Inscriptions concerning Djer, on ivory and wood, are in a very early form of hieroglyphs, hindering complete translation, but a label at Saqqarah may depict the early Old Kingdom practice of human sacrifice.

An ivory tablet from Abydos mentions that Djer visited Buto and Sais in the Nile Delta.

One of his regnal years on the Cairo Stone was named "Year of smiting the land of Setjet", which often is speculated to be Sinai or beyond.

Similarly to his father Hor-Aha, Djer was buried in Abydos.

Djer's tomb is tomb O of Petrie.

His tomb contains the remains of three hundred retainers who were buried with him.

Several objects were found in and around the tomb of Djer.

Women carrying titles later associated with queens, such as great one of the hetes-scepter and She who sees/carries Horus wee buried in subsidiary tombs near the tomb of Djer in Abydos or attested in Saqqara.

These women are thought to be the wives of Djer and include Nakhtneith (or Nekhetneith), buried in Abydos and known from a stela; Herneith, possibly a wife of Djer, buried in Saqqara; Seshemetka, buried in Abydos next to the king, and said to be a wife of Den in Dodson and Hilton; Penebui, her name and title found on an ivory label from Saqqara, and bsu, known from a label in Saqqara and several stone vessels (reading of name uncertain; name consists of three fish hieroglyphs).

The tomb of Djer is associated with the burials of three hundred and thirty-eight individuals, most likely retainers sacrificed upon the king’s death.

Little is known about the reign of Djer’s successor Djet, but he has become famous because of the survival, in well-preserved form, of one of his artistically refined tomb steles.

It is carved in relief with Djet's Horus name, and shows that the distinct Egyptian style already had become fully developed at that time.

His reign was listed in the lost or destroyed sections of the Palermo Stone.

Djet's queen was his sister Merneith.

There is a possibility that a lady called Ahaneith was also his wife.

Djet and Merneith's son was Den, and their grandson was Anedjib.

Djet’s successor Den (or Dewen), is the first to use the title King of Upper and Lower Egypt and the first to wear the double crown.

Annals mention battles against nomadic tribes in the Sinai during his reign.

The floor of his tomb in Umm el-Qa'ab at Abydos is made of red granite, the first time in Egypt this hard stone is used as a building material.

Den’s successor Anedjib—whose name means Safe is His Heart—(also known as Enezib or Andjyeb), is little known and fairly obscure from the monumental records; the small number of attestations for this king and the small size of this king's tomb indicate a brief reign.

As Den had enjoyed a reign of nearly thirty years, Anedjib may have elderly when he assumed power.

Contemporary records suggest that he ruled Egypt during a time of instability and internal conflict; he is forced to put down several uprisings in Lower Egypt.

His tomb at Umm el-Qa'ab, the royal necropolis, is the smallest and most inferior of all the First Dynasty tombs there; his burial chamber, built entirely of wood rather than stone, is of poor construction quality.

Many of the world’s cultures seem to be drying out after massive flooding.

The Holocene Impact Working Group is a group of scientists from Australia, France, Ireland, Russia, and the USA who hypothesize that meteorite impacts on Earth are more common than previously supposed.

The group posits one large impact (equivalent to a ten-megaton bomb) every thousand years.

This estimate is based on evidence of five to ten large impact events in the last ten thousand years.

Satellite observations suggest the presence of many recent impact craters; megatsunamis are thought to have caused landforms such as chevrons.

The chevrons often point in the direction of specific impact craters, the supposition being that the chevrons were deposited by tsunamis originating from the impacts that formed those craters.

Burckle Crater is an undersea crater the Holocene Impact Working Group considered likely to have been formed by a very large scale and relatively recent (c. 3000-2800 BCE) comet or meteorite impact event.

It is estimated to be about thirty kilometers (eighteen miles) in diameter, hence about twenty-five times larger than Meteor Crater.

It is located to the east of Madagascar and west of Western Australia in the southern Indian Ocean, twelve thousand five hundred feet (thirty-eight hundred meters) below the surface.

Its position was determined in 2006 by the same group using evidence of its existence from prehistoric chevron dune formations in Australia and Madagascar that allowed them to triangulate its location.

Geologist Jody Bourgeois has challenged the theory that these chevron dunes are due to tsunamis; using a computer model to simulate a tsunami, she believes the structures are more consistent with aeolian processes.

Kumarikandam, a vast continent that joined Madagascar, Southern India, and Australia, is said to have existed here as per ancient Tamil literature.

Numerous ancient writings from various cultures refer to a "great flood.”

It has been hypothesized that these legends may be associated with this event.

This time period sees the Indus Valley Civilization and the end of its Early Harappan Ravi Phase at ca. 2800 BCE; it also sees the end of the pre-dynastic "antediluvian" rulers of the Sumerian civilization and the start of the First Dynasty of Kish after 2900 BCE. ("After the flood had swept over, and the kingship had descended from heaven, the kingship was in Kish.").

The pre-Xia dynasty rule of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors of China begins around 2850 BCE (with the first two figures, Fuxi and Nuwa, as husband and wife credited with being the ancestors of humankind after a devastating flood).

In Chinese mythology, the Yan emperor, Shennong, besides having taught humans the plow and basic agriculture, and been a god of the burning wind, was sometimes said to be a progenitor or minister of Chi You; and, like him, “ox-headed, sharp-horned, bronze-foreheaded, and iron-skulled”.

One difference between mythology and science is exemplified in Chinese mythology: Shennong and Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor, were supposedly friends and fellow scholars, despite the five hundred years or seventeen or eight generations between the first Shennong and Huangdi, and that together they shared the alchemical secrets of medicine, immortality, and making gold.

According to Sima Zhen's commentary to the Shiji, he is a relative of the Yellow Emperor and is said to be a patriarch of the Chinese.

The Han Chinese regarded them both as their joint ancestors.

Shennong cannot be said to be a historical figure.

However, Shennong, individual and clan, are very important, in the history of culture—especially in regards to mythology and popular culture.

Indeed, Shennong figures extensively in historical literature.

Even Sima Qian, regarded as the father of Chinese historiography, mentions that the rulers directly preceding the Yellow Emperor were of the house, or societal group, of Shennong.

Sima Zhen, who added a prologue for the Shiji, says his surname was Jiang and proceeded to list his successors.

An older, and today evidently more globally popular reference is in the Huainanzi: this is the famous one that says how before Shennong people were sickly and wanting, starved and diseased; but, that he taught them agriculture, which he researched himself, eating hundreds of plants, indeed, in one day even consuming seventy poisons.

Shennong also features in the book popularly known in English as I Ching, in which he is referenced as coming to power at the end of house Paoxi/Fuxi, inventing a bent-wood plow, a cut-wood rake, teaching these skills to others, and establishing a noonday market.

Another reference is in the Lüshi Chunqiu, mentioning some violence concerning the rise of Shennong, and that Shennong power lasted seventeen generations.

There are various subsequent notices of Shennong.

For example, Anthony Christie's Chinese Mythology references Shennong (as Shen-nung) six times, three times with pictures, according to the 1968 index.

The most well-known work attributed to Shennong is The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic—first compiled some time during the end of the Western Han Dynasty, several thousand years after Shennong existed—which lists the various medical herb, such as lingzhi, which were discovered by Shennong and given grade and rarity ratings.

This work, considered the earliest Chinese pharmacopoeia, includes three hundred and sixty-five medicines derived from minerals, plants, and animals.

Shennong is credited with identifying hundreds of medical (and poisonous) herbs by personally testing their properties, which was crucial to the development of Traditional Chinese medicine.

Legend has it that Shennong had a transparent body and thus could see the effects of different plants and herbs on himself, and that in 2737 BCE, he first tasted tea from tea leaves on burning tea twigs, which were carried up from the fire by the hot air, and landed in his cauldron of boiling water.

Venerated as the Father of Chinese medicine, Shennong is also believed to have introduced the technique of acupuncture.

Shennong is said to have played a part in the creation of the Guqin musical instrument, together with Fu Xi and the Yellow Emperor.

Lesbos, near the Hellespont trade routes (modern Dardanelles), long has had strategic and commercial importance.

The oldest artifacts found on the island date to the Paleolithic period.

Important archaeological sites on the island are the Neolithic cave of Kagiani, probably a refuge for shepherds, the Neolithic settlement of Chalakies, and the extensive habitation of Thérmi (3000–1000 BCE).

In 1929-33, the British School excavated Thérmi, north of Mytilene, and Antissa, both important early Bronze Age (c. 3000-2750 BCE) towns.

Thérmi apparently was settled by Troas, judging from its Troy I-like black pottery.)

The largest habitation is found in Lisvori (2800–1900 BCE) part of which is now submerged in shallow coastal waters.

Toward the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture's existence (from roughly 3000 BCE to 2750 BCE), copper traded from other societies (notably, from the Balkans) begins to appear throughout the region, and members of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture begin to acquire skills necessary to use it to create various items.

Along with the raw copper ore, finished copper tools, hunting weapons and other artifacts are also brought in from other cultures.

This marks the transition from the Neolithic to the Eneolithic, also known as the Chalcolithic or Copper Age.

Bronze artifacts begin to show up in archaeological sites toward the very end of the culture.

The more complex trade network of the Proto-Indo-European culture, which would eventually replace the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, supplanted the primitive trade network of this society, which had been slowly growing more complex.

The late period of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture has witnessed a very dramatic shift in world climate.

For the entire duration of this culture's history, the earth has been going through what paleoclimatologists have called the Holocene climatic optimum, which lasted from 7000 to 3200 BCE.

During this time, the earth was both warmer and wetter than it has been at any time since the end of the last Ice Age, making conditions optimal for growing crops.

However, beginning around 3200 BCE, the Earth's climate began to become significantly more arid and cool.

This results in the Sub-Boreal phase, which creates the worst and longest drought in Europe since the end of the last Ice Age.

It also is the point when the region in North Africa that had been a land of forests and grassy plains is turned into the largest desert in the world.

This must have had a tremendous effect on the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, which relies entirely on subsistence farming to feed the enormous populations in their massive settlements.

Without resources to feed their people, this culture would most certainly collapse, and there is much speculation among scholars that if this was not the most significant factor in this culture's demise, that it played an absolutely critical role in bringing it about.

Mari (present Tell Hariri), an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city situated on the western bank of Euphrates river seven miles (eleven kilometers) northwest of Abu Kemal, Syria, is thought to have been inhabited since the fifth millennium BCE, although it flourishes with series of superimposed palaces that spans a thousand years, beginning in 2900 BCE.

The city is strategically important as a relay point between the Sumerian cities of lower Mesopotamia, and the cities of northern Syria.

Sumer requires building materials such as timber and stone from northern Syria, and these materials have to go through Mari to reach Sumer.