Hubert de Burgh, made lord of Montgomery…

Mongol hordes besiege the town of Kaifeng, beginning in 1232, but the townsfolk initially repulse them with "arrows of flying fire.” Tied to the shafts are tubes containing an early form of gunpowder, which produces a fiery exhaust.

A contemporary manuscript describes them as "making a noise like thunder" and "traveling a great distance," implying that these first rockets are not purely incendiary devices.

Ivan, thus betrayed by the Empire, hereafter separates the Bulgarian church from Rome.

Frederick, as regent for his young son Conrad II of Jerusalem, has appointed five bailiffs to govern Cyprus, much to the displeasure of the local nobility.

This is greatly opposed by the Ibelin family and they, supported by the government of the king of Cyprus (a feudatory of Jerusalem) and of Jerusalem, make war on the five bailiffs.

Initially successful in controlling the chief fortresses of the island in the first half of 1232, one of the bailiffs, Aimery Barlais, conquers most of Cyprus save Dieudamour and Buffavento for the emperor.

The Ibelins respond by trying to bribe the Genoese into an alliance with them by offering them commercial privileges at Cypriot ports as well as land grants.

This fails, however.

The Ibelins and Cypriots assemble a meager force of two hundred and thirty-three mounted men as opposed to the massive Lombard force of two thousand horse.

Their army is divided into five battles.

Four are lined up under the command of Hugh of Ibelin, Anceau of Brie, Baldwin of Ibelin, and John of Caesarea.

Balian of Beirut, though he is supposed to be with the rearguard, lines up at the front beside Hugh and Anceau.

The rearguard is commanded by John I of Beirut and Henry of Cyprus.

The Lombard vanguard is led by Walter of Manepeau, who charges as far as the Ibelin rearguard before turning around and leading his men at the fourth battle under John of Caesarea.

They are repulsed and flee.

The second Lombard battle makes a successful charge at the force under Hugh's command, but the men of Anceau readily come to his rescue.

During the subsequent mêlée, Berart of Manepeau is dismounted by Anceau of Brie and seventeen comrades who dismount to help him are killed by sergeants on foot before he recovers.

The young Balian gains a reputation defending a pass from the Lombards.

In the end, the arrival of between fifty and sixty sergans à pié (foot sergeants) from the town of Agridi is critical to their success.

Following the battle, John of Beirut, with funds from Henry of Cyprus, hires thirteen Genoese galleys to aid in the siege of Kyrenia.

Emperor Frederick II had sent an army under the marshal of the Empire that attempts to invade Cyprus in 1231.

John is able to repel the invasion at the Battle of Agridi, but the imperial fleet sails to John's power center of Beirut, which they besiege and almost capture.

The barons of both Jerusalem and Cyprus, in alliance with the Genoese, …

…form a commune in Acre that elects John of of Ibelin as mayor when he arrives in 1232, and …

…resist the imperial deputies, who have the support of the Pisans, the Teutonic Knights, Bohemond of Antioch, and a few nobles.

The clergy, the other military orders, and the Venetians stand aloof.

Pope Gregory IX had formally instituted the papal Inquisition in 1231 with his constitution Excommunicatus, aimed at the suppression of Cathari and other heresies.

Following the law of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, enacted for Lombardy in 1224 and extended to the entire empire in 1232, Gregory orders convicted heretics to be seized by the secular authorities and burned.

Like Frederick, Gregory also mandates that heretics be sought out and tried before a church court.

For this purpose, he appoints special inquisitors in Roman Catholic European nations; he will later place the Dominicans in charge of the Inquisition.

The Reconstruction of the Royal Abbey of Saint-Denis (1232–c. 1240): The First Major Rayonnant Gothic Project

From 1232 onward, under the direction of Pierre de Montreuil, much of the Royal Abbey of Saint-Denis was rebuilt in the Rayonnant Gothic style to accommodate additional royal tombs. This project marked the first major architectural undertaking in the Rayonnant style, representing a shift from the lofty verticality of early Gothic to a focus on light, openness, and elaborate tracery.

The Evolution from Early Gothic to Rayonnant

• The earlier Gothic church, begun by Abbot Suger in the 12th century, had emphasized height and vertical ascent.
• In Rayonnant architecture, the priority was eliminating as much solid masonry as possible, allowing for larger and more intricate windows.
• This was achieved by piercing the triforium wall with traceried openings, creating a seamless flow of lightbetween different levels of the structure.

Key Features of Rayonnant Architecture at Saint-Denis

1. Emphasis on Tracery and Windows

   • The term Rayonnant comes from the radiating spokes of immense rose windows, which became a defining element of the style.
   • At Saint-Denis, the clerestory windows and triforium arcade were integrated, creating a harmonious and unified interior effect.

2. Continuous Vaulting Shafts

   • The shafts supporting the vaults extended uninterruptedly from the floor to the ceiling, enhancing visual cohesion and fluidity.

3. Increased Interior Unity

   • By linking the clerestory windows with the triforium arcade, the design achieved a more interconnected spatial effect, moving away from the rigid compartmentalization of earlier Gothic forms.

Surviving Elements from Suger's Early Gothic Church

• Only a few portions of Suger's original structure survived the Rayonnant renovation, including:
  • The western narthex.
  • The south tower.
  • The ambulatory and chapels of the choir.

Impact and Legacy of the Rayonnant Style at Saint-Denis

• The reconstruction of Saint-Denis in the Rayonnant style influenced later cathedrals, including Sainte-Chapelle in Paris and Reims Cathedral.
• It marked a shift in Gothic priorities, moving from height and mass to light and intricate decoration.
• Saint-Denis continued to serve as the burial place of French royalty, reinforcing its symbolic importance in the Capetian monarchy.

The Rayonnant transformation of Saint-Denis from 1232 under Pierre de Montreuil set a new standard for Gothic architecture, emphasizing openness, luminosity, and intricate tracery, characteristics that would define High Gothic ecclesiastical design.

The Founding of Eindhoven: City Rights Granted in 1232

The written history of Eindhoven, a town in the modern Netherlands, begins in 1232, when Duke Hendrik I of Brabant granted city rights to what was then a small settlement at the confluence of the Dommel and Gender streams. At the time, Eindhoven had approximately 170 houses, enclosed by a protective rampart and supported by a small castle just outside the city walls.

Factors in Eindhoven’s Establishment

1. Strategic Location on Trade Routes

   • Eindhoven was positioned on an important trade route connecting Holland to Liège, making it a natural commercial hub.

2. Market Rights and Economic Growth

   • As part of its city charter, Eindhoven was granted the right to hold a weekly market.
   • Farmers from surrounding villages were required to sell their produce in Eindhoven, boosting the town’s economic significance.

3. Urban Development and Fortifications

   • The ramparts enclosing the city provided protection against raids and feudal conflicts.
   • The presence of a nearby castle suggests Eindhoven also had a strategic military function in the region.

Eindhoven’s Growth and Modern Significance

• Over the centuries, Eindhoven evolved into a major industrial and technological center, particularly in the 20th and 21st centuries, due to the rise of Philips and other tech industries.
• Today, Eindhoven is the fifth-largest city in the Netherlands and the largest city in the province of North Brabant, maintaining its reputation as a center of commerce and innovation.

The granting of city rights to Eindhoven in 1232 laid the foundation for its economic and urban development, positioning it as a key trading center in medieval Brabant and beyond.