Iberia breaks into revolt around 482 and…

The Patriarchate of Alexandria had passed on December 9 to Peter III, who has proved to be a supporter of the christological opinion commonly called monophysitism or more accurately miaphysitism, despite the condemnation of this opinion at the Council of Chalcedon.

The Patriarch of Constantinople, Acacius, devises an irenic formula of unity called the Henotikon, which Zeno promulgates without the approval of the Bishop of Rome or of a Synod of bishops.

By this act, Zeno hopes to placate the increasingly miaphysite provinces of Egypt, Palestine and Syria, which are under increasing attacks by the Persian Sassanid dynasty.

The Henotikon endorses the condemnations of Eutyches and Nestorius made at Chalcedon and explicitly approves the twelve anathemas of Cyril of Alexandria, but avoids any definitive statement on whether Christ had one or two natures, attempting to appease both sides of the dispute.

This act fails to satisfy either side.

All sides take offense at the Emperor openly dictating church doctrine, although the Patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria are pressured into subscribing to the Henotikon.

Those monophysites who had formerly followed Peter of Alexandria now abandon him and cling to their doctrines.

They will henceforth be called Akephaloi (headless ones), since they have lost their leader.

The Rise of Clovis and the Frankish Conquest of Gaul (481 CE Onward)

In 481 CE, Clovis, son of Childeric I and Basina of Thuringia, ascends as ruler of the Salian Franks based in Tournai, in the former Roman province of Gallia Belgica. Though initially controlling only a small Frankish realm, Clovis embarks on a relentless campaign of expansion, laying the foundations for what will become the Frankish Kingdom and, ultimately, medieval France.

Clovis’ Early Rule and the Consolidation of the Franks

• Clovis inherits a fragmented collection of Frankish tribes, including the Salians and parts of the Ripuarian Franks, who live along the Rhine River.
• Unlike previous Frankish reguli, who ruled as local chieftains, Clovis moves toward centralized kingship, asserting dominance over rival Frankish warlords.
• His capital at Tournai serves as the starting point for the Frankish conquest of Gaul.

The Frankish Conquest of Central and Southern Gaul

Under Clovis, the Franks push southward, expanding into Roman-held and Visigothic-controlled territories:

1. Defeat of Syagrius and the End of Roman Gaul (486 CE)

• Clovis first targets the last Roman stronghold in northern Gaul—the Domain of Soissons, ruled by Syagrius, the last Roman dux.
• At the Battle of Soissons (486 CE), Clovis defeats Syagrius, marking the final collapse of Roman rule in Gaul.
• With Syagrius eliminated, Clovis absorbs the former Roman territories in northern Gaul, strengthening his control.

2. Expansion Against the Alemanni (496 CE)

• Clovis then turns eastward to face the Alemanni, who threaten Frankish lands.
• At the Battle of Tolbiac (496 CE), Clovis achieves a decisive victory, securing eastern Gaul and gaining control over parts of the Rhine Valley.
• This battle is also a turning point for Clovis’ religious identity—according to tradition, he converts to Christianity (Catholic Nicene, not Arian) after his victory, an event that will transform the Franks into champions of Catholicism in the West.

3. Conquest of the Burgundians and Visigoths

• By the early sixth century, Clovis moves against the Burgundians, gradually bringing them under Frankish influence.
• In 507 CE, he wages war against the Visigothic Kingdom of Toulouse, defeating King Alaric II at the Battle of Vouillé.
• With this victory, Clovis annexes Aquitaine, securing central and southern Gaul for the Franks.

The Emergence of the Frankish Kingdom

By the time of Clovis’ death in 511 CE, the Franks have transformed from a loose tribal confederation into the most powerful kingdom in Western Europe:

• Clovis unites northern, central, and much of southern Gaul, creating a new Frankish political and military order.
• His conversion to Catholic Christianity, rather than Arianism (which was practiced by most Germanic rulers), wins him the support of the Roman Catholic Church and the Gallo-Roman aristocracy.
• The Frankish Kingdom emerges as the dominant successor to the Western Roman Empire, replacing Visigothic and Burgundian power in Gaul.

This marks the beginning of the Merovingian dynasty, which will shape the early medieval history of Francia and Western Europe.

Illus and Verina attempt to overthrow emperor Zeno and place another general named Leontius on the throne.

Pope Simplicius dies in 483; Felix III, a widower with two children, succeeds him.

The Vandals tolerate Jews, who flourish under their rule, but persecutions of the Roman Catholic church in Africa have at times been fierce, particularly during the last years of the reign of Genseric's successor, Huneric.

The Romano-British Migration to Armorica and the Birth of Brittany

As the Western Roman Empire collapses, waves of Romano-British immigrants flee Britain, crossing the English Channel to settle in Armorica (modern-day Brittany). This migration, which had begun earlier in the fifth century, accelerates dramatically in response to the increasing pressure of:

• Anglo-Saxon raids and settlements in eastern and southern Britain, displacing native Britons.
• Scoti (Irish) incursions into western Britain, including Wales and Cornwall.
• The general breakdown of Roman authority in Britain following the withdrawal of Roman legions (c. 410 CE).

The Formation of a British Identity in Armorica

• The Romano-British immigrants, known as Britons or Bretons, settle primarily on the Armorican Peninsula, where they establish permanent communities.
• These migrants bring with them their language (a Brythonic Celtic dialect), Christianity, and Romano-British traditions, heavily influencing local culture.
• Over time, the Armorican Peninsula becomes known as "Brittany" (Bretagne in French), a reflection of its British origins.

Evidence of Cultural and Linguistic Ties

The connection between Britain and Brittany is evident in:

• Place names – Many regions in Brittany bear names linked to Cornwall and Devon, such as Domnonée (related to Dumnonia in Britain) and Cornouaille (Cornwall).
• Language – The Breton language, still spoken today, remains closely related to Cornish and Welsh.
• Religious and monastic ties – Many early Christian saints venerated in Brittany (e.g., Saint Samson, Saint Malo, and Saint Gildas) were originally from Britain, reinforcing the region’s shared heritage.

Armorica Transformed into Brittany

By the end of the fifth century, the influx of Britons has permanently reshaped Armorica, turning it into a distinct Celtic region within post-Roman Gaul. While surrounded by Frankish and Gallo-Roman territories, Brittany retains its cultural and political independence, developing alongside, but separate from, the Frankish Kingdom.

This migration is one of the most significant cultural shifts of the period, ensuring that Celtic Britain continues to influence the continent, even as much of Britain itself falls under Anglo-Saxon control.

Illus has broken off his relationship with Emperor Zeno, who sends Leontius with an army against Illus, but Illus manages to persuade Leontius to go over to his side.

Zeno remains unpopular with the people of Constantinople, a crucial part of Eastern Roman politics, because he is an Isaurian and as such he is considered a barbarian (which is why he had suffered an usurpation in 475/476 by Basiliscus); Illus, who also is an Isaurian, decides not to take the throne for himself but to raise Leontius to the purple.

Leontius's coronation takes place in Tarsus on July 19, 484—the day had been chosen, following the advice of some astrologers, as a favorable day—at the hands of the empress dowager Verina, who then sends a letter to the Governors of the Diocese of the East and of the Diocese of Egypt suggesting they accept the usurper as Emperor.

Leontius is recognized in Antioch, where he enters July 27, and in some other places; he even has time to nominate officers and to mint coins, before facing the reaction of Zeno.

Illus and Leontius are both Chalcedonians and thus gain the backing of Callandion, Patriarch of Antioch, but otherwise have little support.

Also some pagans support the revolt, among whom is the poet, philosopher, and soothsayer Pamprepius.

Zeno's army, composed of Roman and Ostrogothic troops under the command of Theodoric the Amal and John the Scythian, defeats the rebel army near Antioch on August 8.

Illus and Leontius are forced to take refuge inside the fortress of Papurius, where the insurgents will hold out for four years.