Augustus' reign has laid the foundations of a regime that is to last for nearly fifteen hundred years through the ultimate decline of the Western Roman Empire and until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.

Both his adoptive surname, Caesar, and his title Augustus will become the permanent titles of the rulers of the Roman Empire for fourteen centuries after his death, in use both at Old Rome and at New Rome (Constantinople).

In many languages, Caesar becomes the word for Emperor, as in the German Kaiser and in the Bulgarian and subsequently Russian Tsar.

The cult of Divus Augustus will continue until the state religion of the Empire is changed to Christianity in 391 by Theodosius I. Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first emperor.

He had composed an account of his achievements, the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, to be inscribed in bronze in front of his mausoleum.

Copies of the text are inscribed throughout the Empire upon his death.

The inscriptions in Latin feature translations in Greek beside it, and are inscribed on many public edifices, such as the temple in Ankara dubbed the Monumentum Ancyranum, called the "queen of inscriptions" by historian Theodor Mommsen.

There are a few known written works by Augustus that have survived, including his poems Sicily, Epiphanus, and Ajax, an autobiography of 13 books, a philosophical treatise, and his written rebuttal to Brutus' Eulogy of Cato.

However, historians are able to analyze existing letters penned by Augustus to others for additional facts or clues about his personal life.

Germanicus’ major success is the capture of Arminius' wife Thusnelda in May 15.

He lets Thusnelda sleep in his quarters during the whole of the time she is a prisoner.

He is able to devastate large areas and eliminate any form of active resistance, but at the sight of the Roman army the majority of the Germans flee into remote forests.

The raids are considered a success since the major goal of destroying any rebel alliance networks is completed.

Germanicus visits the site of the disastrous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest and buries the remains of the slaughtered Roman troops, then launches a massive assault on the heartland of Arminius' tribe, the Cherusci.

Arminius initially lures Germanicus' cavalry into a trap and inflicts minor casualties, until successful fighting by the Roman infantry causes the Germans to break and flee into the forest.

This victory, combined with the fact that winter is fast approaching, means Germanicus's next step is to lead his army back to its winter quarters on the Rhine.

The frequently quarreling tribes, enraged by this and other similar bloodbaths (e.g., in the spring of 15 among the Chatti), unite once again to fend back the Roman invaders.

Rome after two more years of warfare will finally abandon its efforts to push its boundaries eastward to the Weser river and retreat permanently behind the Rhine.

The history of the Malay-speaking world begins with the advent of Indian influence, which dates back to at least the third century BCE.

Indian traders come to the archipelago both for its abundant forest and maritime products and to trade with merchants from China, who had also discovered the Malay world at an early date.

Both Hinduism and Buddhism are well established in the southeastern Asian mainland by the beginning of the first century CE, and from here spreads across the vast arc of islands extending from Sumatra in the west to Sulawesi (Celebes) in the east.

The Chimei or Red Eyebrows is, along with Lülin, one of the two major agrarian rebellion movements against Wang Mang's short-lived Xin Dynasty.

The Chimei rebellion, initially active in the modern Shandong and northern Jiangsu regions, eventually leads to Wang Mang's downfall by draining his resources, allowing Liu Xuan (Emperor Gengshi), leader of the Lülin, to overthrow Wang and temporarily reestablish an incarnation of the Han Dynasty.

Eventually, Chimei forces overthrow Emperor Gengshi and place their own Han descendant puppet, teenage Emperor Liu Penzi, on the throne, who rules briefly until the Chimei leaders' incompetence in ruling the territories under their control (which matches their brilliance on the battlefield) causes the people to rebel against them, forcing them to retreat and attempt to return home.

When their path is blocked by the army of the newly established Eastern Han regime of Liu Xiu (Emperor Guangwu), they surrender to him.

Opposition from wealthy landowners and provincial officials still loyal to the Han dynasty forces the autocratic Xin (Hsin) emperor Wang Mang to rescind his radical reforms.

A descendant of the Han rulers, Liu Xiu (Liu Hsiu), effects a restoration of the old dynasty in CE 25.

Wang Mang’s brief rule thus separates the Han Dynasty into two periods: that of the Former, or Earlier, Han, before CE 9, and that of the Later Han, after CE 25.

The Romans, having finally subdued the Illyrian tribes southwest of the Danube River in 9 CE, organize the region encompassing parts of present Austria, Hungary, Serbia (Vojvodina), and Slovenia, as the province of Pannonia sometime after CE 20 and before 50.

Ovid’s last datable poems refer to the year 16; presumably, he dies soon after at the age of sixty or so, an unhappy victim of an authoritarian emperor.

The Middle East: 16–27 CE

Parthian Instability and Roman Intervention

The uneasy stability achieved by Rome's cautious diplomacy in the preceding era rapidly deteriorates, leading to further upheaval in Parthia. Vonones I, installed with Roman support, struggles to maintain his legitimacy amidst escalating resentment among the Parthian nobility due to his overtly Romanized manner and affiliations. By 16 CE, internal opposition compels Vonones to flee, first to Armenia and subsequently to Roman protection in Syria, where he lives under Roman custody.

Seizing upon this power vacuum, the Parthian aristocracy invites Artabanus II, ruler of Media Atropatene, to assume the Parthian throne. Artabanus II swiftly consolidates his position around 18 CE, adopting a distinctly anti-Roman stance. His assertiveness marks a new phase of Parthian resurgence, significantly shifting regional dynamics and prompting renewed Roman diplomatic and military attention.

Roman interests, deeply invested in the status of Armenia as a critical buffer state, become increasingly concerned by Artabanus's assertiveness, which threatens to destabilize the carefully maintained balance of power. Artabanus openly challenges Roman hegemony, maneuvering to install a pro-Parthian king in Armenia. Rome responds swiftly, deploying diplomatic envoys backed by the implicit threat of military intervention.

In 20 CE, the Roman general and future emperor Germanicus Caesar travels eastward to assert Roman interests, but his sudden death in Antioch in 19 CE delays decisive action, fueling suspicion and tension on both sides. Meanwhile, Artabanus's domestic policy of centralization provokes discontent among the powerful Parthian noble houses, fostering continued instability within the Parthian state.

The era concludes with Artabanus II temporarily consolidating power but presiding over an increasingly fragmented realm. Rome, for its part, continues to carefully monitor Parthian internal politics, ready to exploit weaknesses and preserve its strategic influence in Armenia and the broader Middle East. The ongoing rivalry between Rome and Parthia thus persists, characterized by diplomatic maneuvering, shifting alliances, and intermittent threats of war.

Traces remain of the presence of the Kushans in the area of Bactria.

Archaeological structures are known in Takht-I-Sangin, and Surkh Kotal (a monumental temple).

The earliest documented ruler, and the first one to proclaim himself as a Kushan ruler, s Heraios.

He calls himself a "tyrant" on his coins, and also exhibits skull deformation.

He may have been an ally of the Greeks, and he shared the same style of coinage.

Heraios may have been the father of the first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises.