Pepi II Neferkare, who succeeds Merenre Nemtyemsaf I, was once thought to be the son of Pepi I and Queen Ankhesenpepy II but it is now believed Pepi II was rather the son of Merenre, who married Ankhesenpepy after Pepi I's death—based on an inscription from a block of white limestone from her mortuary temple, according to Audran Labrousse, director of the French Archaeological Mission.

Pepi II would, hence, be the grandson of Pepi I instead.

He succeeded to the throne at age six, after the premature death of his father.

His mother Ankhsenpepy II most likely ruled as regent in the early years of his reign.

An alabaster statuette in the Brooklyn Museum depicts a young Pepi II, in full kingly regalia, sitting on the lap of his mother.

Despite his long reign, this piece is one of only three three-dimensional representations (i.e., statuary) in existence of this particular king.

She may have been helped in turn by her brother Djau, who was a vizier under the previous king.

Some scholars have taken the relative paucity of royal statuary to suggest that the royal court was losing the ability to retain skilled artisans.

Harkhuf, a governor of Aswan and the head of one of the expeditions sent into Nubia to trade and collect ivory, ebony and other precious items, captured a pygmy.

News of this reached the royal court, and the excited young king sent word back to Harkhuf that he would be greatly rewarded if the pygmy were brought back alive, likely to serve as an entertainer for the court.

This letter, preserved as a lengthy inscription on Harkhuf's tomb, has been called the first travelogue.

Over his long life, Pepi II had several wives, thought to include Neith (A), Iput II, Ankhenespepy III, Ankhenespepy IV, and Udjebten.

Following a long tradition of royal incestuous marriage, Neith was Pepi II's half-sister (daughter of Ankhnesmerire I) and Iput was his niece (a daughter of his father Merenre).

Of these queens, Neith, Iput, and Udjebten each had their own minor pyramids and mortuary templates as part of the king's own pyramid complex in Saqqara.

It is thought that Pepi II carried on in the tradition of his predecessors and continued with existing foreign relations, and possibly expanding further trade links into southern Africa.

Copper and turquoise mining were undertaken at Wadi Maghara, and alabaster was quarried from Hatnub, both in the Sinai.

There is at least one trade expedition to Punt recorded.

Diplomatic records also exist of missions to Byblos in ancient Canaan.

The king is thought to have taken a policy of pacification in Nubia, with Harkhuf making at least two further expeditions into the area.

Over time it appears as though relations grew strained, for while Harkhuf managed to return safely from each of his expeditions, one of his successors was not so lucky.

There were also military forays into adjacent lands, but it is noted that there was an increasing reliance upon Libyan and Nubian mercenaries.

Further possible evidence of a relative lack of success in these ventures comes from the fact that a scene from the king's pyramid, depicting him as a Sphinx trampling his enemies—including a Libyan chieftain and his family—is wholly derivative from the mortuary complex of previous pharaoh Sahure, which calls into question the veracity of the events supposedly being depicted.

Chinese tradition honors the legendary culture hero Da Yu as the shaper of the country's waterways and the originator of bronze technology.

As Da Yu (Yu the Great) he supposedly inaugurates China's Xia dynasty, named for the Si clan from which Yu springs, in about 2205, One of many legends about Da Yu recounts his extraordinary birth.

A man called Kun is placed in charge of controlling a great inundation, accompanied by unusual terrestrial events.

To dam the water, he steals from heaven what is apparently a piece of magic soil.

Angered by the theft, the Lord on High issues a decree for his execution.

After three years, Kun's miraculously preserved body is slit open and a son brought forth.

This is Yu, who resorts to natural methods, dredging outlets to the sea after years of mighty effort, (perhaps aided in this endeavor by dragons).

By another account, Yu employs hidden channels in the earth to successfully drain away the waters, thus making the world suitable for human habitation.

Enheduanna, daughter of Sargon, priestess, and the first author known by name, is well-known from archaeological and textual sources.

Two seals bearing her name, belonging to her servants and dating to the Sargonic period, have been excavated at the Royal Cemetery at Ur.

In addition an Alabaster disc bearing her name and likeness was excavated in the Gipar at Ur, which was the main residence of the En Priestess.

The statue was found in the Isin-Larsa (from around 2000 BCE to 1800 BCE) levels of the Giparu alongside a statue of the En Priestess Enannatumma.

Enheduanna composed forty-two hymns addressed to temples across Sumer and Akkad including Eridu, Sippar and Esnunna.

The texts are reconstructed from thirty-seven tablets tablets from Ur and Nippur, most of which date to the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods (Sjöberg and Bergman 1969:6-7).

This collection is known generally as 'The Sumerian Temple Hymns'.

The temple hymns were the first collection of their kind, in them Enheduanna states: “My king, something has been created that no one has created before.”

The copying of the hymns indicates the temple hymns were in use long after Enheduanna's death and were held in high esteem.

Her other famous work is 'The Exaltation of Inanna' or 'Nin-Me-Sar-Ra' which is a personal devotion to the goddess Inanna and also details Enheduanna's expulsion from Ur.

Copies of Enheduanna’s work, many dating to hundreds of years after her death, were made and kept in Nippur, Ur and possibly Lagash alongside Royal inscriptions which indicates that they were of high value, perhaps equal to the inscriptions of Kings (Westenholz 1989:540).

Enheduanna's authorship raises the issue of female literacy in ancient Mesopotamia; in addition to Enheduanna, royal wives are known to have commissioned or perhaps composed poetry and the goddess Nindaba acted as a scribe.

Sargon imposes a bureaucracy on his empire and institutes centralized control.

Sargon reigns fifty-six years before dying in 2215 either of old age or in a revolt of the people he has conquered.

His entire empire immediately revolts upon hearing of the king's death.

Most of the revolts are put down by his son and successor Rimush, who reigns for nine years, followed by another of Sargon's sons, Manishtushu.

Soon after the death of Sargon, it begins to be said that he had been found, as an infant, floating in a small boat on the river.

The woolly mammoth, the last species of mammoth, becomes extinct on Wrangel Island between 2500–2000 BCE, the most recent survival of all known mammoth populations.

Much smaller in size than typical mammoths due to limited food supply, and isolated from the mainland for six thousand years, five hundred to one thousand mammoths lived on the island at a time.

Maritime East Asia (2205–2062 BCE): Agricultural Expansion, Cultural Decline, and the Birth of the Xia Dynasty

Between 2205 BCE and 2062 BCE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—experiences crucial transformations marked by shifts in agricultural practices, climatic upheaval leading to cultural decline, and foundational events associated with legendary Chinese rulers. These developments notably include the agricultural practices of Korea's Middle Jeulmun period, the climatic challenges that cause the decline of China's flourishing Longshan culture, and the rise of legendary figures like Shun and Yu the Great, culminating in the establishment of China’s first hereditary dynasty, the Xia Dynasty.

Middle Jeulmun Agriculture on the Korean Peninsula

During Korea’s Middle Jeulmun period (ca. 3500–2000 BCE), agricultural practices gain importance as a supplement to traditional subsistence methods. Archaeological evidence from at least fourteen sites across the peninsula confirms early cultivation practices through finds such as carbonized plant remains and agricultural stone tools.

Notably, Dongsam-dong Shellmidden in southern Korea yields direct AMS radiocarbon dates for domesticated foxtail millet (Setaria italica ssp. italica), firmly placing its cultivation within this era (Crawford and Lee, 2003). Additional evidence, though somewhat controversial, emerges at Jitam-ri (Chitam-ni) in present-day North Korea. Here, excavations of pit-house structures yield carbonized grains described by local archaeologists as domesticated millet, although limitations in excavation methods and documentation leave room for scholarly debate.

Nevertheless, cultivation remains largely supplementary during this era. Subsistence in Korea continues heavily emphasizing deep-sea fishing, shellfish gathering, and hunting. Simultaneously, the distinctive "Classic Jeulmun" pottery, known locally as Bitsalmunui, develops, characterized by intricate comb-patterning, cord-wrapping, and decorative patterns covering entire vessel surfaces. This pottery is primarily identified in west-central and southern coastal Korea, reflecting regional cultural developments and the increasing complexity of Jeulmun societies.

Collapse of the Late Longshan Culture in China

In China, this period witnesses a dramatic demographic and cultural shift associated with a major climatic event, the 4.2 kiloyear BP aridification event (around 2200 BCE). The previously thriving Longshan culture—known especially for its refined black pottery and urbanizing settlements—faces severe environmental challenges, including drought, cooling climate, and declining agricultural productivity, particularly affecting the Yishu River Basin.

The resulting agricultural failures, notably impacting rice production, lead to substantial population reductions, societal fragmentation, and the disappearance of sophisticated ritual pottery characteristic of the Longshan tradition. Around 2000 BCE (4000 cal. yr BP), archaeological records show that Longshan settlements are gradually replaced by simpler, less sophisticated, and more fragmented cultural groups.

Legendary Chinese Rulers: Shun and Yu the Great

Concurrently, legendary historical narratives transmitted through later Confucian texts provide context for China’s social and political transformations. According to these traditions, the virtuous sage-emperor Shun rules during this time, symbolizing moral integrity and exemplary governance. Shun’s reign is credited with key administrative accomplishments, including standardizing weights and measures, organizing China into twelve administrative provinces, and regulating waterways and infrastructure projects.

Shun’s most significant legacy, however, is his choice of successor, Yu the Great—the celebrated hero famed for controlling the catastrophic flooding of previous decades. Yu is honored in later traditions as a foundational figure, renowned for his mastery of waterways and his pioneering role in early Chinese bronze technology. Cultural memory of Yu survives in rituals such as the Taoist Yu’s Step, a ritual dance commemorating the distinctive limp Yu reportedly developed due to his exhausting labors in flood control.

Establishment of the Xia Dynasty

Around 2070 BCE, according to Chinese literary tradition, Yu the Great officially establishes the Xia Dynasty, China’s first imperial dynasty characterized by hereditary succession. Named after Yu’s own Si clan, the Xia Dynasty symbolizes the crucial transition from tribal or collective leadership structures to formal, dynastic monarchy. Some early historical sources alternatively suggest the Xia Dynasty originated as a confederation of agricultural village leaders organized primarily for defense against northern nomadic intrusions from Mongolia and Manchuria.

Though modern historians debate the Xia Dynasty’s precise historical veracity, its cultural importance is undisputed. Yu’s reign, particularly his legendary founding acts—including organizing China into nine zhou (provinces) during meetings at Mount Miao—establishes an enduring template for subsequent Chinese imperial administration.

Legacy of the Era: Climatic Stress, Cultural Resilience, and Dynastic Foundations

Thus, the era 2205–2062 BCE represents a decisive turning point in Maritime East Asia’s historical and cultural trajectory. On the Korean Peninsula, early agricultural experimentation complements traditional subsistence strategies, signaling nascent complexity within Jeulmun societies. In China, environmental stress triggers the decline of the previously dominant Longshan culture, marking a pivotal cultural shift toward simpler, dispersed societies. Meanwhile, legendary sage-rulers Shun and Yu symbolize enduring models of governance, moral virtue, and technological innovation, culminating in the foundational legacy of China’s earliest recognized dynasty—the Xia.

These developments set critical precedents, profoundly shaping the social, political, and cultural foundations upon which future civilizations throughout Lower East Asia continue to build.

At least fourteen sites from Korea's Middle Jeulmun period (circa 3500-2000 BCE) have yielded evidence of cultivation in the form of carbonized plant remains and agricultural stone tools. (Choe, C P and Martin T Bale (2002) Current Perspectives on Settlement, Subsistence, and Cultivation in Prehistoric Korea. For example, Crawford and Lee, using AMS dating techniques, directly dated a domesticated foxtail millet (Setaria italica ssp. italica) seed from the Dongsam-dong Shellmidden site to the Middle Jeulmun (Crawford, Gary W. and Gyoung-Ah Lee 2003. Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula. Antiquity 77(295):87-95.).

Another example of Middle Jeulmun cultivation is found at Jitam-ri (Chitam-ni) in North Korea.

A pit-house at Jitam-ri yielded several hundred grams of some carbonized cultigen that North Korean archaeologists state is millet.

However, not all archaeologists accept the grains as domesticated millet because it was gathered out of context in an unsystematic way, only black-and-white photos of the find exist, and the original description is in Korean only.

Cultivation was likely a supplement to a subsistence regime that continued to heavily emphasize deep-sea fishing, shellfish gathering, and hunting.

"Classic Jeulmun" or Bitsalmunui pottery in which comb-patterning, cord-wrapping, and other decorations extend across the entire outer surface of the vessel, appeared at the end of the Early Jeulmun and is found in West-central and South-coastal Korea in the Middle Jeulmun.

The Neolithic population in China had reached its peak during the Longshan culture.

The drought associated with the 4.2 kiloyear BP aridification event may have caused the collapse of Neolithic cultures around Central China during the late third millennium BCE.

In the Yishu River Basin, the flourishing Longshan culture is hit by a cooling that makes the rice paddies fall short in output.

The scarcity in natural resource leads to substantial decrease in population and subsequent drop in archaeological sites, marked by the disappearance of high-quality black pottery found in ritual burials.

About 4000 cal. yr BP, Longshan culture is displaced by cultures that are relatively underdeveloped, simple and unsophisticated.

Chinese events during this period are shrouded in legend, according to which the emperor Shun, later characterized by Confucius as a model of integrity and resplendent virtue, rules China.

Shun is credited with standardizing weights and measures, regulating waterways, and organizing the kingdom into twelve provinces or regions.

During his reign, marvelous phenomena reportedly occur in the heavens and on earth.

He makes the ingenious Yu, the Tamer of the Flood, his successor.

(Later Chinese traditions will honor this legendary culture hero as the shaper of the country's waterways and the originator of bronze technology.

The Taoist ritual known as Yu's Step, a dance in which one foot is dragged behind the other, commemorates the limp Yu supposedly developed as a result of his exhausting labors.)

As Yu the Great, he inaugurates China's Xia dynasty, named for the Si clan from which Yu springs, in about 2070, making the rulership hereditary in his family and thereby founding the first imperial dynasty in China. (According to other Chinese literary sources, this earliest Chinese dynasty is derived from a leading member of the village agricultural units that cooperated in valley defense against perennial intrusions of mounted nomad archers from Mongolia and Manchuria to the north.)

The Sintashta culture emerges from the interaction of two antecedent cultures.

Its immediate predecessor in the Ural-Tobol steppe was the Poltavka culture, an offshoot of the cattle-herding Yamnaya horizon that moved east into the region between 2800 and 2600 BCE.

Several Sintashta towns were built over older Poltovka settlements or close to Poltovka cemeteries, and Poltovka motifs are common on Sintashta pottery.

Sintashta material culture also shows the influence of the late Abashevo culture, a collection of settlements in the forest steppe zone north of the Sintashta region that were also predominantly pastoralist.

The first Sintashta settlements appear around 2100 BCE, during a period of climatic change that sees the already arid Kazakh steppe region become even more cold and dry.

The marshy lowlands around the Ural and upper Tobol rivers, previously favored as winter refuges, become increasingly important for survival.

Under these pressures both Poltovka and Abashevo herders settle permanently in river valley strongholds, eschewing more defensible hilltop locations.

Hillforts appear in many parts of central Europe and western Britain at the same time that new fighting methods are adopted.