Menkauhor Kaiu, (in Greek known as Menkeris), was Pharaoh in Egypt during the Fifth dynasty.

The Turin King List assigns him eight years of rule.

His pyramid has not been discovered but contemporary records indicate it was either located at Dahshur or Saqqara, rather than Abusir.

He is the last pharaoh to build a sun temple.

He is, historically, the second most obscure ruler after the ephemeral Shepseskare, although several references from royal officials, one major quarry inscription at Wadi Maghara in the Sinai, a single seal and a small alabaster statue prove his existence beyond doubt.

His successor, Djedkare Isesi is ascribed a relatively long reign of twenty-eight years from the Turin Canon though some Egyptologists believe this is an error for thirty-eight years.

Manetho ascribes him a reign of forty-four years, while the archaeological evidence suggests that his reign exceeded thirty-two years.

He did not, as had been customary for his dynasty, build his own sun temple, but did build his pyramid at Saqqara instead of Abusir.

This is believed to be a sign that Osiris had now replaced the sun-god Ra as the most popular god.

Titles were now thought to hold magical power; their inflation believed to be a sign of a gradual decentralization of power.

Nyuserre Ini, also spelt as Neuserre Izi or Niuserre Izi (in Greek known as Rathoris), was Pharaoh of Egypt during the Fifth dynasty, reigning from about 2445 BCE to about 2421 BCE.

His prenomen, Niuserre, means "Possessed of Re's Power."

He was the younger son of pharaoh Neferirkare Kakai by queen Khentkaus II, and brother of the short-lived Neferefre.

He is said in Manetho's Epitome to have reigned for forty-four years, but this data is considered suspect.

The Turin King List data for his reign is badly damaged and gives a figure which could be read as eleven to fourteen years or twenty-one to twenty-four years.

However, a reference to a Sed Feast in his solar temple at Abu Gurab may imply a reign of thirty years for Nysurre.

Military campaigns to Libya and Asia are mentioned in documents of this period, but we have no other evidence of the military activities of this ruler.

Nyuserre Ini’s burial place is a pyramid at Abusir located between those of pharaohs Sahure and Neferirkare Kakai.

Its initial height was around fifty meters, with a base of about seventy-nine square meters and a slope of 52 degrees.

His queen, Reput-Nebu, was also buried nearby.

At Abu Gurab he built a magnificent temple of the solar cult, called Joy of Re.

Urukagina, alternately rendered as Uruinimgina, is a ruler (énsi) of Lagash in Mesopotamia about the twenty-fourth century BCE, is best-known for his reforms to combat corruption, which are sometimes cited as the first example of a judicial code.

Although the actual text has not been discovered yet, much of its content may be surmised from other references to it that have been found.

In it, he exempts widows and orphans from taxes; compels the city to pay funeral expenses (including the ritual food and drink libations for the journey of the dead into the lower world); and decrees that the rich must use silver when purchasing from the poor man, and if the poor does not wish to sell, the powerful man (the rich man or the priest) cannot force him to do so.

Urukagina's code is perhaps the first known example of government self-reform.

Like the Magna Carta and the United States Constitution that followed (and like the Codes of Hammurabi, et al.

to some degree), Urukagina's code limits the power of politicians, governing government.

The text describing Urukagina's reforms is also the first known use of the word freedom, in this case the Sumerian ama-gi.

Urukagina frees the inhabitants of Lagash from usury, burdensome controls, hunger, theft, murder, and seizure (of their property and persons).

He also participates in several conflicts, notably a losing border conflict with Uruk.

During his reign, Uruk falls under the leadership of Lugal-Zage-Si, patesi of Umma, who ultimately overthrows Urukagina, annexes Lagash, and establishes a Mesopotamian Empire.

Maritime East Asia (2349–2206 BCE): Legendary Flood, Sage-Kings, and the Foundation of Gojoseon

Between 2349 BCE and 2206 BCE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—enters an era dominated by legendary events and seminal myths that profoundly influence later historical and cultural identities. This period prominently features China’s foundational legends of the Great Flood, the virtuous reigns of the mythical sage-kings Yao and Shun, the rise of Yu the Great, early jade culture, and the mythical establishment of the Korean kingdom of Gojoseon.

The Legendary Great Flood of China

A pivotal event of this era is the legendary Great Flood of China, traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE during the reign of Emperor Yao. According to Confucian historical texts, notably the Classic of History (Shu Jing)and the writings of the historian Sima Qian, the flood devastates extensive areas, inundating both the Yellow (Huang He) and Yangtze (Chang Jiang) river valleys. Catastrophic flooding, accompanied by severe storms and widespread famine, continues unabated for years, causing massive population displacement and social turmoil.

Initially, a figure named Kun attempts to control the floodwaters by constructing dams and barriers. However, Kun’s efforts fail disastrously, leading Emperor Yao to execute him for incompetence. Kun’s son, Yu—later revered as Yu the Great—adopts innovative, natural methods by creating extensive drainage channels that successfully redirect floodwaters into the sea, ultimately stabilizing the environment and restoring productivity.

Reigns of Legendary Sage-Emperors Yao and Shun

Emperor Yao, traditionally reigning from approximately 2356 BCE to 2255 BCE, is venerated in later Confucian literature as the ideal sage-king, embodying benevolence, moral perfection, and civic virtue. Yao’s reign becomes a model for subsequent Chinese rulers, exemplifying enlightened governance. Among Yao's attributed accomplishments is the legendary invention of the strategic board game Weiqi (Go), reportedly developed to positively influence his unruly son, Danzhu.

In Confucian tradition, Yao, recognizing the unworthiness of his son Danzhu, instead chooses the morally exemplary Shun as his successor. Shun’s ascent to rulership is justified by his exceptional virtue and exemplary filial piety, despite personal adversity and familial mistreatment. Yao cements this selection by marrying his two daughters to Shun. After Yao’s death—at age 119 according to tradition—Shun formally becomes emperor following a customary three-year mourning period.

Alternative accounts, notably those presented in the Bamboo Annals, offer differing narratives, claiming Shun rebels against Yao, imprisoning him and causing his death, exiling Danzhu, and consolidating power by force. Nonetheless, mainstream Confucian historiography maintains Shun as the virtuous and rightful heir.

As emperor, Shun (reigning from 2255 BCE) emphasizes governance based on merit rather than hereditary privilege, becoming another revered model of ethical rulership in Chinese culture. Eventually, Shun designates Yu the Great—the celebrated flood-tamer—as his successor, further solidifying the principle of meritocracy. Yu’s accession will lay foundations for the establishment of China’s earliest dynasty (Xia Dynasty) after 2070 BCE.

Early Chinese often speak of Yao, Shun, and Yu as historical figures, though contemporary historians generally interpret them as symbolic leader-chiefs representing transitional governance from tribal alliances to structured societies with hierarchical, patriarchal systems.

Foundation Myth of Gojoseon (2333 BCE)

Meanwhile, on the Korean Peninsula, traditional legend holds that Dangun Wanggeom establishes the first Korean kingdom, Gojoseon (Choson), in 2333 BCE. This foundational myth, recorded centuries later in Korean historical texts such as the Samguk Yusa (13th century) and Jewang Ungi, associates Dangun’s ascension closely with the reign of China’s Emperor Yao. Historical sources offer varying specific dates: Samguk Yusa places Dangun’s rule beginning in the fiftieth year of Yao’s reign, while Sejong Sillok and Dongguk Tonggam suggest alternative timing. Some historians even argue for a much earlier foundation around 3000 BCE.

Gojoseon’s establishment myth profoundly shapes Korean cultural identity, linking Korean origins symbolically to broader regional historical narratives and enhancing a shared cultural heritage in Lower East Asia.

Early Jade Culture and Regional Artistry

Concurrently, jade carving traditions continue to flourish across China, reflecting significant cultural and artistic continuity from earlier Neolithic periods. Jade remains culturally prominent, with primary ancient nephrite jade sources, such as those in the Ningshao region (Yangtze River Delta, Liangzhu Culture, ca. 3400–2250 BCE) and Liaoning Province (Hongshan Culture, ca. 4700–2900 BCE), influencing regional artisanal styles. During this era, jade artifacts typically exhibit simplicity, with minimal ornamentation reflecting early artistic styles and spiritual symbolism deeply ingrained in regional cultural practices.

Legacy of the Era: Legends Shaping Cultural Identity

Thus, the period 2349–2206 BCE profoundly shapes Maritime East Asia’s early historical narrative, blending legendary sagas, foundational myths, and cultural symbolism. China's Great Flood legend, combined with accounts of virtuous sage-emperors Yao and Shun, embeds enduring moral and social principles that define subsequent Chinese political philosophy. Korea’s Gojoseon legend establishes a foundational cultural identity that resonates deeply in Korean history, while regional jade craftsmanship preserves early cultural continuity across East Asia.

Collectively, these legendary narratives, myths, and artistic practices serve as powerful cultural and historical symbols, profoundly influencing subsequent historical interpretations and cultural identities in Lower East Asia throughout subsequent eras.

The Great Flood of China, traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE during the reign of the Emperor Yao, according to historical sources, was a major flood event that continued for many years, resulting in great population displacements and in association with various related disasters, such as storms and famine.

History begins in this age as a continuously recorded literary tradition in China, Mesopotamia, Canaan, and Egypt.

Archaeological investigations have yielded thousands of written documents from this period.

The legendary Dangun Wanggeom supposedly establishes the first Korean kingdom, Gojoseon, or Choson, in 2333 BCE.

The oldest existing record of this founding myth appears in the Samguk Yusa, a thirteenth-century collection of legends and stories.

A similar account is found in Jewang Ungi.

The date differs among historical sources, although all of them put it during the mythical Yao's reign (traditional dates: 2357 BCE – 2256 BCE) in China.

Samguk Yusa says Dangun ascended to the throne in the fiftieth year of Yao's reign, Sejong Sillok says the first year, and Dongguk Tonggam says the twenty-fifth year.

Some historians suggested that Gojoseon was founded around 3000 BCE.

Chinese history as a continuously recorded literary tradition begins with the ancient documents transmitted to posterity through the Records of the Grand Historian, of Sima Qian, which begin this narrative with the reign of the Yellow Emperor, and incorporate two discourses by Confucius.

The great-grandson (or fourth successor) of the Yellow Emperor, according to these, was Yao.

With the reign of Yao, additional literary sources become available, including the Book of History (collected and edited by Confucius); it begins with the "Canon of Yao” that describes the events of Yao's reign.

Yao, the first of the legendary sage-emperors regarded as the founders of China, rules, according to Confucian tradition, from 2356 BCE.

The benevolence and diligence of Yao, who is often extolled as the morally perfect sage-king, serves as a model to future Chinese monarchs and emperors.

It is during Yao's reign that the Great Flood begins, a flood so vast that no part of Yao's territory is spared, and both the Yellow River and the Yangtze valleys flood.

According to the Confucian works The Classic of History (Shu jing) and the Book of Mencius, the great flood continues for years, devastating China.

A man named Kun (K’un) attempts to control the flood by constructing dams, but fails and is executed by Emperor Yao.

Kun’s son Yu resorts to natural methods, using hidden channels in the earth to successfully drain the waters away.

According to legend, Yao became the ruler at twenty and died at one hundred and nineteen when he passed his throne to Great Shun, to whom he gave his two daughters in marriage.

Of his many contributions, Yao is said to have invented the game of Weiqi, or Go, reportedly to favorably influence his vicious playboy son Danzhu.

After the customary three year mourning period after Yao's death, Shun named Danzhu as the ruler but the people only recognized Shun as the rightful heir.

The Bamboo Annals offers a different story.

Shun rebelled and imprisoned Yao where he is left to die.

Danzhu is exiled and later defeated by Shun.

Shun, the legendary sage-emperor who supposedly succeeds Emperor Yao in 2255 BCE, had remained loyal to his family despite their mistreatment of him, and thus won the approval of the emperor.

Impressed by Shun's virtue, the emperor had given him his two daughters in marriage and passed over his own unworthy son to make Shun his successor.

As ruler, Shun emulates Yao in emphasizing merit over hereditary right (becoming, to the later Confucians, a Chinese exemplar of filial piety).

Shun considered his son, Shangjun, as unworthy and picked Yu, the tamer of floods, as his heir.

Yu takes over this leadership in 2070 BCE and creates what will later become the Xia Dynasty.

With his son Qi to follow in the leadership, this will eventually become China's first dynasty.

Yu met at Mount Miao in the eighth year of his reign and declared that he wanted his tribe to be more than a tribe, that he wanted to become a king of a nation.

According to the the Book of History, Yu divided the world into nine zhou or provinces.

Early Chinese often speak of Yao, Shun and Yu as historical figures, and contemporary historians believe they may represent leader-chiefs of allied tribes who established a unified and hierarchical system of government in a transition period to the patriarchal feudal society.

In the Book of History, (aka the Classic of History) one of the Five Classics, the initial chapters deal with Yao, Shun, and Yu.

Jade has been used in virtually all periods of Chinese history and generally accords with the style of decorative art characteristic of each period.

Thus, the earliest jades, of the Neolithic Period, are quite simple and unornamented.

During Neolithic times, the key known sources of nephrite jade in China for utilitarian and ceremonial jade items were the now depleted deposits in the Ningshao area in the Yangtze River Delta (Liangzhu culture 3400–2250 BCE) and in an area of the Liaoning province in Inner Mongolia (Hongshan culture 4700–2900 BCE).

Dushan Jade was mined as early as 6000 BCE.