Paul spends eighteen months in Corinth in…

Paul's narrative in Galatians states that fourteen years after his conversion he went again to Jerusalem. (Gal. 2:1-10).

It is not completely known what happened during these 'unknown years', but both Acts and Galatians provide some partial details.

At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him back to Antioch. [Acts 11:26]

When a famine occurred in Judea, around 45–46, Paul and Barnabas had journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.

According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen.

It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians."[Ac. 11:26]

Claudius writes copiously throughout his life.

Arnaldo Momigliano states that during the reign of Tiberius—which covers the peak of Claudius' literary career—it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. (Momigliano, Arnaldo [1934] Claudius: the Emperor and His Achievement Trans. W.DHogarth. Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons.)

The trend among the young historians was to either write about the new empire or obscure antiquarian subjects.

Claudius is the rare scholar who covers both.

Besides the history of Augustus' reign that caused him so much grief, his major works include an Etruscan history and eight volumes on Carthaginian history, as well as an Etruscan Dictionary and a book on dice playing. (Claudius is actually the last person known to have been able to read Etruscan.)

Despite the general avoidance of the Imperatorial era, he has penned a defense of Cicero against the charges of Asinius Gallus.

Modern historians have used this to determine both the nature of his politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil war history.

He has proposed a reform of the Latin alphabet by the addition of three new letters, two of which serve the function of the modern letters W and Y.

He had officially instituted the change during his censorship, but they will not survive his reign.

Claudius has also tried to revive the old custom of putting dots between successive words (Classical Latin is written with no spacing).

Finally, he has written an eight-volume autobiography that Suetonius describes as lacking in taste.

Since Claudius (like most of the members of his dynasty) heavily criticizes his predecessors and relatives in surviving speeches, it is not hard to imagine the nature of Suetonius' charge.

Unfortunately, none of the actual works survive.

They do live on as sources for the surviving histories of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

Suetonius quotes Claudius' autobiography once, and must have used it as a source numerous times.

Tacitus uses Claudius' own arguments for the orthographical innovations mentioned above, and may have used him for some of the more antiquarian passages in his annals.

Claudius is the source for numerous passages of Pliny's Natural History.

As the author of a treatise on Augustus' religious reforms, Claudius feels himself in a good position to institute some of his own.

He has strong opinions about the proper form for state religion.

He refuses the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods.

He restores lost days to festivals and gets rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula.

He re-institutes old observances and archaic language.

Claudius is concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the city and searches for more Roman replacements.

He emphasizes the Eleusinian mysteries which had been practiced by so many during the Republic.

He expels foreign astrologers, and at the same time rehabilitates the old Roman soothsayers (known as haruspices) as a replacement.

Claudius opposes proselytizing in any religion, even in those regions where he allows natives to worship freely.

The results of all these efforts are recognized even by Seneca, who has an ancient Latin god defend Claudius in his satire.

The settlement the Romans have named Verulamium was known before the Roman arrival as Verulamion (perhaps meaning "[settlement of] Uerulamos [Broad-Hand]" in Brittonic), the capital of the Catuvellauni tribe.

It had been established by their leader Tasciovanus and in this pre-Roman form, is among the first places in Britain recorded by name.

The Roman settlement is granted the rank of municipium in about CE 50, meaning its citizens have what are known as 'Latin Rights', a lesser citizenship status than the colonias possess.

Caratacus, whose tribe, the Catuvellauni, had been defeated in the first phase of the conquest, has reemerged as a leader of the Silures of south east Wales and Gloucestershire.

Their rising is controlled by a program of legionary fortress construction, driving Caratacus north into the lands of the Ordovices.

Ostorius manages to force him into an open conflict, after several years of guerrilla war.

Tacitus's Annals has Caratacus leading the Silures and Ordovices of Roman Wales against Ostorius, who in 50 finally manages to defeat Caratacus in a set-piece battle somewhere in Ordovician territory, capturing Caratacus' wife and daughter and receiving the surrender of his brother.

Caratacus himself escapes.

The site of the battle is unknown.

The hill fort on Caer Caradoc Hill in Shropshire is connected with the battle by virtue of its name.

Local legend places it at British Camp in the Malvern Hills.

However, the Severn, though visible from this location, is too distant to fit Tacitus's description of the site.

A position just west of Caersws, where the remains of earthworks still stand, has also been suggested, as has a location near Brampton Bryan.

Rhadamistus, son of King Parsman I of Iberia (Pharasmanes), is known for his ambition, good looks, and valor.

Parsman, fearing usurpation by his son, has persuaded Rhadamistus to make war upon his uncle, King Mithridates of Armenia, Parsman’s brother, and father of Rhadamistus' wife, Zenobia.

The Iberians invade with a large army and force Mithridates into the fortress of Gorneas (Garni), which is garrisoned by the Romans under the command of Caelius Pollio, a prefect, and Casperius, a centurion.

Pollio, swayed by Rhamistus' bribery, induces the Roman soldiers to threaten capitulation of the garrison.

Under this compulsion, Mithridates agrees to surrender to his nephew.

Rhadamistus executes Mithridates and his sons despite a promise of nonviolence, and becomes King of Armenia.

Preaching in Corinth in about 51, Paul writes the two Epistles to the Thessalonians, in which he cautions his recently founded community of Christians at Thessalonica against thinking of the Second Coming of Jesus, which he expects imminently at this stage in his career, as an easy escape from trouble.

Reviewing his stay with them, expressing concern for their welfare, and encouraging them in suffering, he reassures them that those already dead will rise at the Second Coming and that certain signs will precede the end. (1 Thessalonians is the earliest Christian document known to exist. Some scholars maintain that 2 Thessalonians is by a later disciple of Paul.)

Paul is brought before Gallio, the Roman governor of Corinth, in 51.

Claudius, according to the biographer Suetonius, during a period of troubles expelled the Jews from Rome for a short time; the Christian sect may be involved.

Elsewhere he confirms existing Jewish rights and privileges, and in Alexandria, he tries to protect the Jews without provoking Egyptian nationalism.

In a surviving letter addressed to the city of Alexandria, he asks Jews and non-Jews ”to stop this destructive and obstinate mutual enmity”.

Caractus, although a captive, is allowed to speak to the Roman senate.

Tacitus records a version of his speech in which he says that his stubborn resistance made Rome's glory in defeating him all the greater:
“If the degree of my nobility and fortune had been matched by moderation in success, I would have come to this City as a friend rather than a captive, nor would you have disdained to receive with a treaty of peace one sprung from brilliant ancestors and commanding a great many nations.
But my present lot, disfiguring as it is for me, is magnificent for you.
I had horses, men, arms, and wealth: what wonder if I was unwilling to lose them?
If you wish to command everyone, does it really follow that everyone should accept your slavery?
If I were now being handed over as one who had surrendered immediately, neither my fortune nor your glory would have achieved brilliance.
It is also true that in my case any reprisal will be followed by oblivion.
On the other hand, if you preserve me safe and sound, I shall be an eternal example of your clemency.” (Tacitus, The, translated by A. J. Woodman, 2004) He made such an impression that he was pardoned and allowed to live in peace in Rome.

After his liberation, according to Dio Cassius, Caratacus was so impressed by the city of Rome that he said "And can you, then, who have got such possessions and so many of them, covet our poor tents?" (Dio Cassius, Roman History, Epitome of Book LXI, 33:3)

Queen Cartimandua is first mentioned by Tacitus in CE 51, but her rule over the Brigantes may have already been established in 43 when Claudius began the organized conquest of Britain: she may have been one of the eleven "kings" who Claudius' triumphal arch says surrendered without a fight.

If not, she may have come to power after a revolt of a faction of the Brigantes was defeated in 48 by Ostorius.

Of "illustrious birth" according to Tacitus, she has probably inherited her power as she appears to have ruled by right rather than through marriage.

She and her husband, Venutius, are described by Tacitus as loyal to Rome and "defended by our [Roman] arms".

Caractacus, his forces defeated by Ostorius in North Wales, flees to Cartimanduas, but in 51 she turns him over, in chains, to the Romans, who have supported her in a number of anti-Roman revolts among her subjects.

Caratacus is sent to Rome as a war prize, presumably to be killed after a triumphal parade.

Ostorius is honored with triumphal insignia but his victory over Caratacus has not entirely quelled resistance in the Welsh borders.

The Silures especially continue to harass Roman troops, supposedly after Ostorius had publicly said that they posed such a danger that they should be either exterminated or transplanted.

A large legionary force occupied in building forts in Siluran territory is surrounded and attacked and only rescued with difficulty and considerable loss.

This violent desperation on the part of the Silures can be attributed to their reaction to what Peter Salway, author of Roman Britain (1981), a volume in the Oxford History of England series, calls Ostorius' lack of political judgment.

The Silures, galvanized by Ostorius' ill-thought out threats to destroy them, begin taking Roman prisoners as hostages and distributing them among their neighboring tribes.

This has the effect of binding them all together and creating a new resistance movement.

According to Tacitus's biography of Agricola, the Silures usually had a dark complexion and curly hair.

Due to their appearance, Tacitus hinted that they may have crossed over from Spain at an earlier date.

The Iron Age hillfort at Llanmelin near Caerwent has sometimes been suggested as a pre-Roman tribal center, but the view of most archaeologists is that the people who became known as the Silures were a loose network of groups with some shared cultural values, rather than a centralized society.

Although the most obvious physical remains of the Silures are hillforts such as those at Llanmelin and Sudbrook, there is also archaeological evidence of roundhouses at Gwehelog, Thornwell (Chepstow) and elsewhere, and evidence of lowland occupation notably at Goldcliff.

Emperor Claudius and the Expansion of the Roman Empire (41–54 CE)

Emperor Claudius (r. 41–54 CE), known for his shrewd administrative skills and focus on imperial stability, actively expanded Roman citizenship and established new Roman cities throughout the empire. He recognized that urbanization and integration of provincial elites were key to maintaining imperial control and governance.

Claudius’ Territorial Expansions

During his reign, several key regions were incorporated into the Roman Empire, strengthening Rome’s dominance in Western Europe, North Africa, and beyond:

1. The Roman Conquest of Britain (43 CE)

• Under Claudius, Rome finally launched the long-awaited invasion of Britain, previously attempted under Julius Caesar (55–54 BCE) and planned but abandoned by Caligula (40 CE).
• Aulus Plautius led the campaign with four legions, successfully defeating the Catuvellauni and their allies.
• Claudius personally traveled to Britain to accept the submission of local chieftains, marking the formal annexation of Britannia as a Roman province.
• Roman fortresses, roads, and cities were established, including Camulodunum (Colchester), the first provincial capital.

2. Annexation of Mauretania (42 CE)

• Mauretania, previously a client kingdom, was formally annexed into the empire after the execution of its last king, Ptolemy of Mauretania (40 CE).
• The kingdom was divided into two new provinces:
  • Mauretania Tingitana (modern Morocco)
  • Mauretania Caesariensis (modern Algeria)
• This secured Roman dominance over North Africa, allowing easier control of trade and military movementsalong the western Mediterranean.

3. The Integration of Thrace (46 CE)

• Thrace, previously a client kingdom, was incorporated into the empire after the death of King Rhoemetalces III.
• Rome stationed legions in the region, securing its strategic position near the Danube frontier and preventing incursions from barbarian tribes.

4. The Formalization of the Gallic Provinces

• Although Gallia had been conquered by Julius Caesar (58–50 BCE), Claudius reorganized the region into formal provinces, strengthening its administrative structure:
  • Gallia Lugdunensis
  • Gallia Belgica
  • Gallia Aquitania
• These changes further Romanized Gaul, granting citizenship to local elites and promoting the growth of Roman cities and infrastructure.

Claudius’ Administrative and Urbanization Policies

• Claudius expanded Roman citizenship, granting legal rights to provincial elites, helping integrate them into the imperial system.
• He established new Roman colonies across the empire, reinforcing loyalty to Rome and fostering economic development.
• His policies ensured that the provinces were not merely conquered lands, but integrated parts of the Roman world, securing long-term stability and prosperity.

Legacy of Claudius’ Expansions

• By expanding Rome’s borders, Claudius solidified control over Western Europe, North Africa, and the Balkans.
• His emphasis on provincial urbanization helped spread Roman law, culture, and infrastructure across newly incorporated territories.
• The annexation of Britain, in particular, marked the beginning of nearly 400 years of Roman rule, shaping the island’s historical and cultural trajectory.

Claudius’ reign cemented Rome’s position as the dominant power of the ancient world, ensuring that its frontiers, administration, and economy remained strong for generations to come.