East Europe (388–531 CE): Hunnic Invasions and the Transformation of Tribal Dynamics

Political and Military Developments

Rise and Expansion of the Huns

Between 388 and 531 CE, the Huns, a nomadic confederation originating from Central Asia, aggressively expanded westward into East Europe, dramatically reshaping regional power structures. Their powerful military campaigns significantly disrupted Gothic dominance and compelled various tribes to migrate further westward and southward.

Decline and Migration of the Goths

The Hunnic incursions severely destabilized established Gothic territories, forcing substantial Gothic migrations into Roman territories and other parts of Europe. This period notably includes the famous crossing of the Danube by the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, precipitating broader shifts throughout Europe.

Economic and Technological Developments

Disruption and Realignment of Trade Networks

Hunnic domination disrupted established Eurasian trade routes, prompting significant shifts in trade flows and economic relationships. Despite disruptions, trade persisted along alternate routes, adapting to changing political landscapes.

Military Innovation and Hunnic Warfare

The Huns introduced and perfected swift, highly mobile cavalry tactics, revolutionizing warfare in East Europe. Their military techniques, including superior horsemanship and composite bows, profoundly influenced European warfare practices and inspired adaptations among neighboring tribes.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Influence of Hunnic Artistic Traditions

The artistic culture introduced by the Huns blended Central Asian motifs with existing Gothic and Roman influences, resulting in distinct new styles. Metalwork, weaponry, and personal adornments exhibited intricate designs and craftsmanship, indicative of this cultural fusion.

Shifts in Gothic and Local Artistic Traditions

Gothic artistic expressions adapted significantly in response to Hunnic influences. Local traditions continued to evolve, incorporating new symbolic and stylistic elements that reflected the dynamic cultural interactions of this period.

Settlement Patterns and Urban Development

Decline and Transformation of Urban Centers

The destabilizing impact of Hunnic invasions led to the abandonment or transformation of many urban centers, with populations relocating or fortifying their settlements against further incursions. Strategic and defensive considerations dominated urban and settlement planning.

Chernyakhov Culture’s Decline

The previously flourishing Chernyakhov culture experienced a decline and eventual dissolution under Hunnic pressure, giving way to smaller, more dispersed settlement patterns reflective of broader migratory and defensive strategies.

Social and Religious Developments

New Social Hierarchies and Power Structures

Hunnic domination imposed new hierarchical structures and alliances, with tribal leaders gaining prominence through military prowess and strategic cooperation with or resistance against Hunnic authority. Social structures became more fluid in response to shifting power dynamics.

Religious Pluralism and Adaptation

Religious practices diversified further during this period, reflecting the coexistence and adaptation of multiple belief systems including traditional paganism, Christianity, and Central Asian religious elements introduced by the Huns.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 388 to 531 CE was characterized by profound political, military, and cultural upheaval due to Hunnic invasions. These dramatic transformations significantly influenced subsequent historical developments, setting the stage for the emergence of medieval European political and social structures.

East Central Europe (388–531 CE): Hunnic Empire, Germanic Kingdoms, Sarmatian Legacy, and Early Slavic Expansion

Between 388 and 531 CE, East Central Europe—including modern-day Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and those parts of Germany and Austria east of 10°E and north of the boundary line stretching southeastward from approximately 48.2°N, 10°E to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—underwent significant transformations driven by the powerful Hunnic invasions, extensive Germanic migrations, the collapse of Roman provincial administration, and the continuing influence of Sarmatian populations. These dynamics fundamentally reshaped regional demographics, political alliances, economic patterns, and cultural landscapes, laying foundations for early medieval Europe.

Political and Military Developments

Arrival and Dominance of the Huns

From the late 380s, the Huns, nomadic warriors originally from Central Asia, rapidly dominated East Central Europe. Motivated by environmental pressures, demographic growth, and the pursuit of tribute and conquest, the Huns under Rua, Bleda, and particularly Attila (r. 434–453) established a powerful empire centered on the Carpathian Basin (modern Hungary). Their expansion displaced numerous tribes, destabilized Roman frontier provinces, and profoundly altered regional geopolitics.

Collapse of Roman Provincial Structures

Roman provincial governance, previously divided into Pannonia Prima, Secunda, Savia, and Valeria, crumbled under sustained Hunnic and Germanic pressures. Provinces such as Pannonia Savia and Secunda ceased to exist by the late 5th century, with Roman control of Pannonia Valeria finally dissolving in 496 CE, symbolizing Rome's definitive withdrawal from the region.

Germanic Kingdoms: Ostrogoths, Gepids, Lombards, Thuringians, and Rugii

Following Attila’s death in 453 CE, Germanic tribes filled the ensuing power vacuum, establishing influential kingdoms:

• Ostrogoths: Initially displaced by Huns, migrated through the region under Theodoric the Great (r. 493–526), ultimately moving into Italy by 488 CE at the invitation of the Eastern Roman Empire, attracted by opportunities for stable governance.

• Gepids: Originating from Gothic confederations and displaced by Huns, established a strong kingdom in eastern Hungary, Slovakia, and Transylvania after Attila's fall, seizing strategic opportunities in the Carpathian Basin.

• Lombards (Langobardi): Migrating from northern Germany due to environmental stress and tribal conflicts, controlled areas of modern Austria, western Hungary, Czechia, and later northern Italy.

• Thuringians: Consolidated power in eastern Germany, forming a stable kingdom and fostering regional stability.

• Rugii: Originally from the Baltic (Pomerania), migrated southward to escape other migrating tribes and Hunnic pressures, settling around the upper Tisza. They maintained relative autonomy until conflicts around 500 CE with the Ostrogoths and Odoacer led to their collapse.

Sarmatian Continuity and Influence: Iazyges and Alans

Throughout this era, the region experienced continued Sarmatian influence, primarily from the Iazyges and Alans—Iranian-speaking nomadic peoples renowned for their cavalry tactics. Despite Hunnic pressure, significant populations of Sarmatians remained in the plains of modern-day Hungary and adjacent areas, exerting sustained military, political, and cultural influence. Their elite cavalry skills were widely adopted by successor Germanic kingdoms, leaving a lasting imprint on military traditions and noble cultures.

Migration Patterns of Vandals and Alans

Driven westward by Hunnic incursions, the Vandals, accompanied closely by Alans, migrated from regions around modern Poland and Czechia through Gaul and Iberia, eventually establishing a lasting kingdom in North Africa by 429 CE. These movements were emblematic of the broader disruptions and realignments triggered by the Hunnic invasions.

Early Slavic Expansion and Stability

Proto-Slavic and early Slavic populations, initially based in modern-day Poland, western Ukraine, and Czechia, gradually expanded into territories depopulated by earlier Germanic and Hunnic migrations. Demonstrating remarkable cultural stability, these communities laid durable foundations for future Slavic states, gradually shaping the region’s demographic identity.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Disruption and Adaptation

Hunnic invasions and Roman administrative collapse severely disrupted established economic networks, prompting decentralized economies focused on local agriculture, animal husbandry, and village-based trade. Subsequent Germanic kingdoms gradually restored economic stability, revitalizing trade along reestablished regional routes.

Technological Resilience

Despite upheaval, ironworking, agricultural technologies, and traditional crafts persisted, blending Roman techniques with Germanic, Slavic, and Sarmatian influences, maintaining productivity and technological continuity amid political turbulence.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Cultural Hybridization

Extensive interactions among diverse groups—including the Huns, Germanic tribes, Sarmatian Iazyges and Alans, Romans, and early Slavic populations—resulted in rich cultural exchanges and hybridization, evident in artistic motifs, burial customs, pottery styles, and linguistic exchanges.

Germanic and Hunnic Artistic Contributions

Germanic kingdoms and Hunnic artisans produced sophisticated jewelry, metalwork, and weaponry, blending steppe-nomadic, Roman, and traditional Germanic artistic styles, contributing significantly to the region’s material culture.

Sarmatian Artistic Legacy

The continuing Sarmatian presence was strongly reflected in sophisticated metalwork adorned with animal motifs, intricate harness fittings, and rich burial assemblages. Sarmatian cultural and artistic traditions thus influenced the visual and material culture of the broader region, enduring as symbols of noble status and equestrian prowess.

Settlement and Urban Development

Decline of Roman Urban Centers

Roman settlements and military fortifications such as Carnuntum, Vindobona (Vienna), and Aquincum (Budapest)declined significantly, becoming smaller fortified outposts or rural settlements controlled by Germanic and other tribal groups.

Continued Importance of Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg)

The city of Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), initially established as a Roman provincial capital, retained regional significance and economic vitality, sustaining continuous settlement and cultural continuity despite regional transformations.

Emergence of Germanic and Slavic Rural Settlements

Germanic and early Slavic populations increasingly favored dispersed agricultural village communities with communal social structures, reshaping settlement patterns into predominantly rural landscapes.

Social and Religious Developments

Tribal Social Hierarchies and Leadership

Germanic kingdoms maintained strong hierarchical structures, centered around warrior aristocracies and kinship-based alliances. The nomadic Hunnic and Sarmatian aristocracies likewise significantly influenced social structures, particularly through equestrian traditions and military prowess.

Religious Continuity and Syncretism

Local Germanic, Slavic, and Sarmatian populations largely retained traditional religious practices—including ancestral worship, nature-based rituals, and communal ceremonies—while Christianity persisted within urban remnants and certain Germanic communities, creating a diverse religious landscape.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 388 to 531 CE profoundly reshaped East Central Europe's historical trajectory. Driven by the migrations and conquests of the Huns, Vandals, Ostrogoths, Gepids, Lombards, Rugii, and influential Sarmatian tribes, the political and cultural landscape underwent transformative realignments. The enduring Sarmatian legacy influenced regional military practices, noble identities, and cultural symbolism, especially later adopted by medieval Polish nobility. Economic decentralization, technological resilience, cultural hybridization, and the foundations laid by expanding Slavic populations established essential precursors for the development of medieval kingdoms and societies, decisively shaping the region's subsequent history.

North of the Danube, various German tribes were already extending their territory by the first century CE.

By the latter half of the second century CE, they were making devastating incursions into Roman territories.

Nevertheless, Roman arms and diplomacy had maintained relative stability until the late fourth century, when other Germanic tribes, including the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Vandals, were able to establish settlements in Roman territory south of the Danube.

The Roman province of Noricum gradually becomes indefensible, and much of the Christian, Romanized population evacuates the region in 488.

The Ostrogoths invade Italy in 493, seize control of what remains of the western half of the Roman Empire, and bring the Roman era in the eastern Alps to an end.

Eastern Southeast Europe (388–531 CE): Transition, Division, and Byzantine Emergence

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Barbarian Invasions and Settlements

Between 388 and 531 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe experienced extensive migrations and invasions from groups including the Huns, Alans, Antes, Gepids, Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Iazyges, and later the Avars and Kutrigurs (Bulgars). These movements significantly affected regional stability, settlement patterns, and demographic composition. In 448, the Huns ravaged key cities such as Sirmium (modern-day Sremska Mitrovica), Singidunum (Belgrade), and Emona (Ljubljana). By 493, the Ostrogoths had established dominance over Dalmatia and other provinces, though later driven out by Emperor Justinian I in the sixth century.

Roman Provincial Reorganization

Significant Roman provincial reorganizations occurred, establishing provinces such as Pannonia Savia, Pannonia Secunda, Pannonia Valeria (modern Slavonia, Vojvodina, and the Banat), Moesia Prima, Moesia Secunda, Dacia Ripensis, Scythia Minor, and Europa. These administrative divisions enhanced governance, security, and economic integration.

Urban Adaptation and Transformation

Cities adapted through improved fortifications. Byzantium, renamed Constantinople by Emperor Constantine in 330 CE, emerged prominently as the Byzantine capital. After the catastrophic Battle of Adrianople (378), where the Visigoths defeated Emperor Valens, Constantinople's defenses were greatly enhanced. Theodosius II constructed the city's formidable eighteen-meter-tall triple-wall fortifications, impenetrable until the advent of gunpowder.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Realignment and Resilience

Despite disruptions from migrations and warfare, regional economies adapted effectively. Constantinople became a major economic hub, facilitating commerce between Europe, Asia Minor, and the broader Mediterranean. Wealth from the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia flowed into the city, establishing it as the largest urban center following the Western Roman Empire's fall.

Military and Defensive Innovations

Technological advancements emphasized defensive infrastructure, including enhanced fortifications, improved military equipment, and sophisticated logistics, sustaining military effectiveness amidst external threats and securing strategic locations.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Byzantine Cultural Flourishing

Constantinople and major cities experienced a cultural renaissance, exemplified by sophisticated architecture, mosaics, and public art reflecting imperial grandeur and Christian spirituality. The founding of a university near the Forum of Taurus in 425 by Theodosius II exemplified significant cultural and intellectual investments.

Preservation of Classical Heritage

Classical Greek and Roman knowledge was preserved through educational institutions and libraries, ensuring continued influence of classical texts, philosophies, and scientific knowledge in regional education and culture.

Social and Religious Developments

Evolution of Byzantine Governance

Roman provincial governance evolved into the distinctive Byzantine administrative system with centralized bureaucracy and complex provincial structures. The division of the Roman Empire in 395 by Emperor Theodosius's sons permanently separated Greek-speaking Constantinople from Latin Rome, profoundly influencing cultural and political dynamics, especially among future Serbs and Croats.

Christianity’s Ascendancy and Theological Debates

Christianity became deeply intertwined with political authority and cultural identity. Theological debates surrounding Arianism and Christological doctrines significantly influenced religious practices and social dynamics. Constantinople established a patriarchate exercising ecclesiastical jurisdiction over much of the Greek East, reinforcing Christianity's regional prominence.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 388 to 531 CE was transformative, transitioning Eastern Southeast Europe from late Roman territories into the Byzantine Empire. Demographic shifts, economic realignments, cultural flourishing, and religious developments laid the foundations of Byzantine civilization, significantly shaping the region’s historical trajectory.

The sons of Emperor Theodosius split the empire into eastern and western halves in 395.

The division, which becomes a permanent feature of the European cultural landscape, separates Greek Constantinople (as Byzantium was renamed in 330) from Latin Rome and eventually the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches.

It likewise separates the lands in what is now Serbia and Croatia, exercising a critical influence on the future Serbs and Croats.

Economic and administrative breakdown soon softens the empire's defenses, especially in the western half, and barbarian tribes begin to attack.

In the fourth century, the Goths sack Roman fortresses along the Danube River, and in 448 the Huns ravage Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica northwest of present- day Belgrade), Singidunum (now Belgrade), and Emona (now Ljubljana).

The Ostrogoths have conquered Dalmatia and other provinces by 493.

Emperor Justinian will drive the invaders out in the sixth century, but the defenses of the empire will prove inadequate to maintain this gain.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (388–531 CE): Imperial Decline, Barbarian Ascendancy, and Cultural Transformation

The age 388–531 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe encompasses profound shifts, including the final decline of Western Roman imperial authority, the rise of Germanic kingdoms, and significant religious and cultural transformations. These events deeply influence the historical trajectory of the region, laying the foundations of medieval Europe.

Division and Decline of the Roman Empire (388–411 CE)

In 395 CE, the Roman Empire definitively splits into Western and Eastern halves, marking a turning point. The Western Empire, weakened by internal strife and external invasions, progressively dissolves. Emperor Honorius (r. 395–423 CE) struggles against invasions, commissioning his sister, Galla Placidia, and her husband, the Visigothic king Ataulf, to stabilize Iberia. Their efforts partially restore order, with the Visigoths settling permanently in Spain, subduing the Suevi, and pushing the Vandals into North Africa.

Visigothic Kingdom and Ecclesiastical Authority (412–447 CE)

The Visigoths, highly Romanized, establish their capital at Toledo by 484 CE, governing in the emperor's name as imperial patricians. Despite their relatively small numbers—approximately 300,000 among four million Hispano-Romans—their elite status significantly shapes regional politics.

Ecclesiastical institutions, especially the Council of Bishops, emerge as stabilizing forces amid declining civil governance. Bishops, possessing both civil and religious authority, effectively maintain order, reinforcing Christianity’s growing influence as a social and political force.

Ostrogothic Ascendancy and Cultural Flourishing (448–459 CE)

In Italy, Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great emerges as a dominant figure, leading his Goths against Odoacer in 489 CE and establishing the Ostrogothic Kingdom by 493 CE. Theodoric's rule blends Roman administrative practices with Gothic leadership, ushering in stability and cultural revival, exemplified by artistic masterpieces like the mosaics in Ravenna’s mausoleum of Galla Placidia.

Late Imperial Decline, Visigothic Expansion, and Vandal Incursions (460–471 CE)

Between 456 and 460 CE, Vandals under Genseric briefly occupy coastal cities in Corsica and Sardinia, an occupation formalized by Emperor Majorian. Roman authority, weakened under emperors Majorian and Anthemius, struggles to maintain territorial integrity, but General Marcellinus, possibly supported by Pope Hilarius, regains control of these territories by 466 CE.

Simultaneously, Visigoths under King Euric consolidate power in southern Gaul and Iberia, gradually dismantling Roman administrative structures and paving the way toward medieval feudalism. Amid political upheaval, Christianity remains a powerful stabilizing and cultural force.

The Fall of Western Rome and Renewed Vandal Expansion (472–483 CE)

In 476 CE, the Western Roman Empire formally collapses with the deposition of Emperor Romulus Augustulus by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer. Concurrently, Visigothic King Euric expands his dominion, firmly establishing the Visigothic Kingdom across southern Gaul and Iberia.

Between 474 and 482 CE, Sardinia again falls under Vandal rule, possibly led by Huneric. Their control secures maritime trade routes between North Africa and the Mediterranean. Sardinian cities, notably Olbia, suffer destructive raids, reflecting the island’s strategic importance.

Theodoric’s Conquest, Ostrogothic Kingdom, and Vandal Administration (484–495 CE)

From 489 CE, Theodoric leads the Ostrogoths into Italy, defeating Odoacer by 493 CE and establishing the Ostrogothic Kingdom centered at Ravenna. Concurrently, Vandals maintain a structured administrative system in Sardinia, overseen by a praeses from Caralis, supported by procurators and tax officials. The territory is divided among crown lands and Vandal warriors, though local Sardinian-Roman landowners retain estates through payments, and Barbagia maintains semi-autonomous status.

Visigothic Consolidation and Frankish Rivalry (496–507 CE)

Under Alaric II, the Visigoths enact the Breviary of Alaric (506 CE), codifying Roman law for their subjects. However, rising tensions with the Franks culminate in Alaric’s defeat and death at the Battle of Vouillé (507 CE), forcing Visigoths into a defensive position within Iberia.

Stabilization and Reorganization (508–531 CE)

After Vouillé, the Visigothic Kingdom under Amalaric stabilizes, solidifying power in Iberia. In Italy, Theodoric’s Ostrogothic Kingdom experiences continued stability, economic prosperity, and cultural vitality, reflected in architectural achievements like the Basilica of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo and Theodoric’s Mausoleum.

Cultural and Economic Continuity

Despite fragmentation, local economies adapt successfully, with robust agricultural production and active regional trade. Christianity shapes cultural norms, education, and artistic expression, preserving Roman traditions within evolving medieval contexts.

Germanic Influence and Legacy

The Suevi maintain a modest kingdom in northwestern Iberia, while the Vandals, despite limited numbers, imprint their legacy on southern Spain (Andalusia) and Sardinia, influencing regional names and historical memory.

Legacy of the Age

The era 388–531 CE signifies a critical transformation from classical Roman civilization to early medieval Europe. Visigothic and Ostrogothic kingdoms, empowered ecclesiastical structures, and cultural adaptations profoundly shape the region’s future identity. This period's enduring legacies include Roman-derived legal systems, ecclesiastical dominance, linguistic shifts (Romance languages), and foundational medieval political structures.

The geographer Ptolemy had written that the "Huni" were between the Bastarnae and the Roxolani in the Pontic area under the rule of Suni by CE 139, although it is not known for certain if these people were the Huns.

It is possible that the similarity between the names "Huni" and "Hunnoi" is only a coincidence, considering that while the West Romans often wrote Chunni or Chuni, the East Romans never used the guttural Χ at the beginning of the name.

Possibly Mongol in origin, the Huns now include substantial numbers of Germanic and Indo-Iranian groups, their culture and organization a melange of many different customs.

The nomadic horde, heavily reliant on animal herding, is sustained by the plundering of sedentary peoples.

The Huns had first appeared in Europe north of the Black Sea around 370, then crossed the Volga river and attacked the Alans, whom they had subjugated.

Jordanes reports that the Huns were led at this time by Balamber while modern historians question his existence, seeing instead an invention by the Goths to explain who defeated them.

Denis Sinor suggests that Balamber, if he existed, may have been a chief of a small faction of Huns, since Vithimiris utilized Hun mercenaries against him, which suggests a lack of unity among the Huns.

Sinor also cites Ammianus' statement that the Huns "are subject to no royal restraint," casting further doubt on Balamber's status as king.

(Sinor, ed.

by Denis (1994).

The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia (1. publ.

ed.).

Cambridge [u.a.

]: Cambridge Univ.

Press).

After the Huns defeated the Alans, the Huns and Alans had started plundering Greuthungic settlements.

The Greuthungic king, Ermanaric, had committed suicide and his great-nephew, Vithimiris, had taken over.

but had been killed during a battle against the Alans and Huns in 376, resulting in the subjugation of most of the Ostrogoths.

Vithimiris' son, Viderichus, was only a child so command of the remaining Ostrogothic refugee army had fallen to Alatheus and Saphrax.

The refugees had streamed into Thervingic territory, west of the Dniester.

The destruction of the Gothic kingdoms by the Huns in 372-375 is the trigger for the barbarian invasions of the fifth century, which will include the capture and looting of the city of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 and by the Vandals in 455.

With a part of the Ostrogoths on the run, the Huns had next come to the territory of the Visigoths, led by Athanaric.

Athanaric, not to be caught off guard, had sent an expeditionary force beyond the Dniester.

The Huns avoided this small force and attacked Athanaric directly.

The Goths had retreated into the Carpathians.

Support for the Gothic chieftains had diminished as refugees headed into Thrace and towards the safety of the Roman garrisons.

After these invasions, the Huns had begun to be noted as Foederati and mercenaries.

As early as 380, a group of Huns had been given Foederati status and allowed to settle in Pannonia.

Hunnish mercenaries are also seen on several occasions in the succession struggles of the Eastern and Western Roman Empire during the late fourth century.

However, it is most likely that these were individual mercenary bands, not a Hunnish kingdom.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (388–399 CE): Theodosius's Consolidation and Religious Orthodoxy

The era 388–399 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is defined by the firm consolidation of imperial authority under Theodosius I, the deepening integration of Christianity as the state religion, and evolving cultural dynamics amid persistent external threats.

Imperial Consolidation under Theodosius I

After successfully defeating the usurper Magnus Maximus in 388 CE, Theodosius I unifies the Roman Empire for the last time under single imperial authority. His leadership stabilizes the empire temporarily, reasserting central control and solidifying political cohesion across Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

The Edicts Against Paganism

Theodosius intensifies his religious policies, promoting Christianity through a series of edicts targeting traditional Roman paganism. Notably, between 391 and 392 CE, he issues edicts prohibiting pagan worship and sacrifices, resulting in widespread closure and destruction of temples. These measures significantly accelerate the decline of traditional religious practices in favor of Christianity.

Cultural Shifts and the Dominance of Christianity

Christianity's ascendance deeply influences cultural and intellectual expression. Public art, architecture, and literature increasingly reflect Christian themes, reshaping the cultural landscape. Traditional Roman values and imagery continue to evolve, integrating into a distinctly Christianized cultural identity.

Economic Resilience and Provincial Stability

Despite religious upheaval and administrative realignment, regional economies demonstrate resilience. Infrastructure projects initiated under Theodosius, combined with stable agricultural and commercial activity, sustain economic vitality across Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

Military Vigilance and Frontier Pressures

Throughout his reign, Theodosius maintains rigorous frontier defenses, notably against renewed threats from Germanic tribes. The stabilization of Gothic federates within the empire provides short-term security, yet underscores Rome’s increasing reliance on allied barbarian groups for defense.

Division of the Empire (395 CE)

Upon Theodosius’s death in 395 CE, the Roman Empire is definitively divided between his sons—Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West—marking a permanent division that profoundly influences subsequent historical developments in the region.

Legacy of the Era

The era 388–399 CE marks a significant turning point characterized by imperial unification followed by permanent division, the decisive triumph of Christianity over paganism, and enduring economic and cultural transformations. Theodosius’s reign solidifies Christianity’s primacy, reshapes imperial governance, and sets the stage for the profound political and cultural shifts that define the Roman world in the following centuries.

The first barbarian group to formally enter Roman territory—in 376, as refugees from the Huns—had been the Visigoths, or Tervingi, one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe, the Ostrogoths, or Greuthingi, being the other.

The Goths had remained in Dacia until 376, when one of their leaders, Fritigern, had appealed to the Roman emperor Valens to be allowed to settle with his people on the south bank of the Danube, where they hoped to find refuge from the Huns.

Valens permitted this, tolerating their presence on condition that they defend the Danube frontier.

However, a famine had broken out and Rome had been unwilling to supply them with either the food they had been promised or the land.

Open revolt had ensued, leading to six years of plundering and destruction throughout the Balkans, and in 378, the decisive moment of the Gothic War, the death of a Roman Emperor and the destruction of an entire Roman army in the Battle of Adrianople, which had shocked the Roman world and eventually forced the new emperor, Theodosius, to make peace with the rebels in 382 and permit them to settle within the imperial boundaries with a large degree of autonomy.

The new trend of settlement within the Empire will have far-reaching consequences that will result in the eventual fall of the Roman Empire.

Coexisting peacefully with the Romans, farming and trading agricultural products and enslaved people for luxury goods, the Visigoths break their eight-year peace with the Empire by allying with the Huns in 390 to ravage Thrace.

Pannonia has been the birthplace of several Roman emperors of the third century, and the province has provided large numbers of troops for the Roman army.

The grave barbarian threat in the fourth century CE forces the Romans to withdraw after 395, from which time Pannonia ceases to exist as a separate unit, its largely Illyrian inhabitants left to the rule of the Ostrogoths, who now move in as an occupying force.