The Milesians establish Apollonia on the Black Sea's Gulf of Burgas in the seventh century BCE).

The Middle East: 645–634 BCE

Ashurbanipal: Scholar and Collector

During the years 645–634 BCE, Assyrian king Ashurbanipal proudly asserts his unique status as a scholarly king, boasting of his extensive education: “I Ashurbanipal, within [the palace], took care of the wisdom of Nebo, the whole of the inscribed tablets, of all the clay tablets, the whole of their mysteries and difficulties, I solved.” Unlike most monarchs of his era, Ashurbanipal is notably literate, able to read and write cuneiform scripts in both Akkadian and Sumerian. His intellectual pursuits include translating ancient texts predating the great flood and solving complex mathematical problems. Demonstrating his deep respect and passion for Mesopotamian culture, he establishes a vast library in Nineveh, gathering cuneiform texts from across Mesopotamia, especially from Babylonia.

Ashurbanipal’s Cruelty and Power

Despite his scholarly reputation and evident popularity among his subjects, Ashurbanipal also gains notoriety for exceptional cruelty toward his enemies. Assyrian reliefs and contemporary accounts graphically illustrate his brutality: depictions survive of him threading a dog chain through the jaw of a defeated enemy king and forcing him to live confined within a dog kennel. His reign is prominently characterized by displays of severity and intimidation, often celebrated through vivid imagery that underscores pride in his ruthless power.

Stability and Decline

The final decade of Ashurbanipal’s rule is notably peaceful for Assyria, yet beneath this superficial calm, the empire begins to show signs of serious decline. Administrative documentation becomes scarce, suggesting diminished bureaucratic efficiency and possibly internal disruptions. Although surviving records confirm at least thirty-eight years of Ashurbanipal’s reign (up to 631 BCE), later historical traditions assert that he ruled for a total of forty-two years (ending in 627 BCE). His twilight years are overshadowed by growing succession disputes among his sons, indicating emerging fractures within Assyrian royal authority and hinting at impending instability that will soon challenge the empire’s integrity.

Assyrian king Ashurbanipal asserts his pride in his scribal education his in the statement: “I Ashurbanipal within [the palace], took care of the wisdom of Nebo, the whole of the inscribed tablets, of all the clay tablets, the whole of their mysteries and difficulties, I solved.”

He is one of the few kings who can read the cuneiform script in Akkadian and Sumerian, and claims that he even wrote texts from before the great flood.

He is also able to solve mathematical problems.

He collects cuneiform texts from all over Mesopotamia, and especially Babylonia, in the library in Nineveh.

Despite being a popular king among his subjects, Ashurbanipal is also known by for his exceedingly cruel actions towards his enemies.

Some pictures depict him putting a dog chain through the jaw of a defeated king and then making him live in a dog kennel.

Many paintings of the period seem to exhibit pride in his malice and brutality.

During the final decade of his rule, Assyria is quite peaceful, but the country apparently faces a serious decline.

Documentation from the last years of Ashurbanipal's reign is very scarce but the latest attestations of Ashurbanipal's reign are of his year 38 (631 BCE), but according to later sources he reigned for 42 years (627 BCE).

While he still lives, Ashurbanipal’s sons apparently contest the succession.

Near East (645–634 BCE): Regional Upheavals and Judah’s Opportunity for Renewal

Cimmerian Conquests and the Crisis at Sardis

In Lydia, the aftermath of Gyges’ defeat continues to reverberate. Approximately ten years after Gyges' death, his son Ardys II faces a renewed and devastating Cimmerian assault. This time, in a decisive campaign around 644 BCE, the Cimmerians succeed in capturing Sardis, Lydia’s capital, although its fortified citadel narrowly withstands the siege. This dramatic defeat sends shockwaves through Asia Minor and profoundly unsettles the Greek colonies along the Ionian coast, as vividly reflected in the fearful verses composed by contemporary Greek poets Callinus and Archilochus.

Judah’s Transition and Self-Rule Under Josiah

Meanwhile, Judah, having been a vassal to the Assyrian Empire for a century since the reign of Ahaz, witnesses dramatic internal changes. Assyrian domination has brought foreign religious influences and suppressed traditional Yahwist practices, contributing to ongoing social and religious tensions.

In 641/640 BCE, Amon, son and successor of Manasseh, is assassinated after ruling Judah for only two years. Following his assassination, the politically influential faction known as the "People of the Land" places Amon’s eight-year-old son Josiah on the throne. Josiah’s ascension coincides with a critical geopolitical shift: Assyria’s grip on power is weakening, the Neo-Babylonian Empire has yet to emerge fully, and Egypt under Psamtik I remains occupied with internal consolidation. Consequently, Judah finds itself uniquely positioned to assert a degree of autonomy unprecedented in recent memory, providing Josiah and his advisors a rare window of opportunity for internal political and religious reforms.

Psamtik I: Diplomatic Consolidation in Egypt

In Egypt, Psamtik I continues to solidify his hold on power through astute diplomatic measures. Having previously reunified the country, he now successfully secures the allegiance of local rulers in southern Egypt through careful negotiations and alliances, minimizing internal resistance and establishing a stable and centralized rule throughout the entire Nile Valley.

Aeolian Expansion on the Anatolian Coast

Concurrent with these developments, the western Anatolian coast experiences a second wave of Aeolian Greek colonization. Among the new settlements is the strategically placed city of Assus, founded by colonists from Methymna on Lesbos. Constructed upon steep, terraced slopes overlooking the Gulf of Adramyti (modern Edremit), Assus rapidly develops into a crucial maritime hub, controlling the only viable harbor on the gulf’s northern shore and dominating regional trade routes along the Anatolian coastline.

Legacy of the Era

The era of 645–634 BCE is marked by significant regional upheaval and realignment. The Cimmerian invasion profoundly reshapes power dynamics in Asia Minor, instilling widespread insecurity that resonates deeply within the Greek colonies. Judah’s newfound political breathing room under young Josiah sets the stage for a profound religious and social revival. In Egypt, Psamtik’s patient and effective diplomacy continues to consolidate the country’s recovery from foreign domination. Collectively, these events underscore the volatility and fluidity of political and cultural boundaries across the Near East in this transformative period.

The Cimmerians return to Sardis ten years later during the reign of Gyges' son Ardys II; this time they capture the city, with the exception of the citadel.

The Cimmerians have attained the summit of their power.

The fall of Sardis is a major shock to the powers of the region; the Greek poets Callinus and Archilochus record the fear that it inspired in the Greek colonies of Ionia.

Psamtik uses diplomacy to secure the loyalty of local rulers in southern Egypt.

A second group of Aeolian settlements is colonized on the west coast of Anatolia in the seventh century BCE.

Assus, founded by Aeolic colonists from Methymna in Lesbos in the first millennium BCE, is constructed on the terraced slopes, partly natural and partly artificial, of an isolated cone of trachyte that rises steeply more than seven hundred feet (two hundred meters) above the sea.

Assus has the only good harbor on the north shore of the Gulf of Adramyti (Gulf of Edremit) and commands coastal traffic.

Aeolians from Lesbos and Ionian Greeks from Miletus establish about twelve cities in the Thracian Cheronese, a region comprising the modern Gallipoli Peninsula, located on the European side of the Hellespont (the Dardanelles, in modern Turkey) in the seventh century BCE.

A major wheat-exporting region, it is on the main trade route between Europe and Asia; one of its cities, Sestos, is at the main crossing point of the Hellespont.

Perdiccas I, a Dorian, establishes a kingdom (north of modern Greece) over the semibarbarous Macedonian tribes, which include Thracian and Illyrian elements, in about 700.

Herodotus states: "From Argos fled to the Illyrians three brothers of the descendants of Temenus, Gauanes, Aeropus, and Perdiccas; and passing over from the Illyrians into the upper parts of Macedonia they came to the city of Lebaia."

"Now that these descendants of Perdiccas are Greeks, as they themselves say, I myself chance to know and will prove it in the later part of my history.”

Prominent among the Greek states that never experience tyranny is Sparta, a fact noted even in antiquity.

It is exceptional in this and in other respects: it sent out few colonies, only to Taras (Tarentum) in the eighth century and—in the prehistoric period—to the Aegean islands of Thera and Melos.

Though unfortified, it succeeds, exceptionally among Greek states, in subduing by force a comparably sized neighbor—Messenia, which had lost its independence to Sparta in the eighth century and will not regain it until the 360s The Messenian factor is the primary determinant of the peculiar development of Sparta, because it has forced Spartans to adjust their institutions to deal with a permanently hostile subject population.

In Sparta and other Dorian Greek states, five ephors, or chief magistrates, are elected annually, the senior one giving his name to the year.

The Spartan ephors levy troops and control the city-state's two kings, or basileis, whom they can prosecute before the Gerousia (council of elders), and try for misconduct of a military campaign.

Additionally, the ephors, who arrive at decisions by majority vote, administer taxes, hear civil suits, supervise education, determine foreign policy, and parcel out the spoils of conquest.

The ephors of each year on entering office declare war on the helots so that they might be murdered at any time without violating religious scruples.

It is the responsibility of the Spartan secret police, the Krypteia, to patrol the Laconian countryside and put to death any supposedly dangerous helots.