The Afghan tribal chiefs have become increasingly powerful and unruly, and the outlying provinces now assert their independence.

The Sikhs of the Punjab have encroached upon Afghan territories from the east, while the Persians threaten from the west, mounting a failed attack on Herat in 1805.

French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, now at the zenith of his power in Europe, proposes to Tsar Alexander I of Russia a combined invasion of India.

A British mission, headed by Mountstuart Elphinstone, meets Shah Shoja' at Peshawar to discuss mutual defense against this threat, which never develops.

On June 7, 1809, the two nations conclude a treaty of friendship, the shah promising to oppose the passage of foreign troops through his dominions.

Shortly after the mission leaves Peshawar, Shah Shoja' receives news that the forces of Mahmud and Fath Khan have occupied Kabul.

His troops routed, Shah Shoja' withdraws from Afghanistan, and Mahmud regains the throne.