Whereas the Egyptian effendiyah and umada are…

Whereas the Egyptian effendiyah and umada are rising, the traditional merchant class has declined because the lucrative import-export trade is dominated by resident foreigners, and Egyptian merchants are confined to internal trade.

During the nineteenth century, foreign trade has been completely reoriented.

In the past, it had dealt mainly in Sudanese, Arabian, and oriental goods.

Cairo is one of the most important centers of trade, and Egyptian, Syrian, and Turkish merchants engage in it.

During the nineteenth century, Greeks and other Europeans resident in Egypt have monopolized the export of cotton to Europe and the import of European industrial goods.