The Chinese custom of foot binding, beginning in the tenth century, is confined to court dancers of the Song Dynasty.

Multiple accounts attempting to explain the origin of foot binding exist, each advancing a different theory: from the desire to emulate the naturally tiny feet of a favored concubine of a prince, to a story of an empress who had club-like feet, which became viewed as a desirable fashion.

However, there is little strong textual evidence for the custom prior to the court of the Southern Tang dynasty in Nanjing, which had celebrated the fame of its dancing girls renowned for their tiny feet and beautiful bow shoes.

First present in the elite, foot binding is initially a common practice only in the wealthiest parts of China, but the custom will be increasingly practiced on young Chinese girls and women for approximately one thousand years.

The Samanids, their roots stemming from the city of Balkh, have promoted the arts, giving rise to the advancement of science and literature, and thus attracting scholars such as Rudaki and Avicenna.

While under Samanid control, Bukhara is a rival to Baghdad in its glory.

Scholars note that the Samanids had revived the Persian language more than had the Buyids and the Saffarids, while continuing to patronize Arabic to a significant degree.

Nevertheless, in a famous edict, Samanid authorities had declared that "here, in this region, the language is Persian, and the kings of this realm are Persian kings."

The Samanids have not only revived Persian culture but have also determinedly propagated Sunni Islam.

In doing so, the Samanids have repressed Ismaili Shiism but remained tolerant of Twelver Shiism.

The Samanid state has become a staunch patron of Islamic architecture and spread the Islamo-Persian culture deep into the heart of Central Asia.

The population within its areas has begun firmly accepting Islam in significant numbers, notably in Taraz, now in modern day Kazakhstan.

According to historians, through the zealous missionary work of Samanid rulers, as many as thirty thousand tents of Turks will come to profess Islam (and later, under the Ghaznavids, the number of Turkish converts will total more than fifty-five thousand under the Hanafi school of Islamic thought).

The mass conversion of the Turks to Islam will eventually lead to a growing influence of the Ghaznavids, who will later rule the region.

Another lasting contribution of the Samanids to the history of Islamic art is the pottery known as Samanid Epigraphic Ware: plates, bowls, and pitchers fired in a white slip and decorated only with calligraphy, often elegantly and rhythmically written.

The Arabic phrases used in this calligraphy are generally more or less generic well wishes, or Islamic admonitions to good table manners.

Vladimir captures the Greek town of Korsun' (Chersonesos)—highly important commercially and politically—in Crimea in 988, according to the apocryphal account in the so-called Korsun' Legend, which precedes the account of Vladimir's baptism in the Russian Primary Chronicle.

This campaign may have been dictated by his wish to secure the benefits promised to him by Basil II, when he had asked for the Rus' assistance against Phocas.

Vladimir, promised the hand of the emperor's sister, Anna Porphyrogeneta, in recompense for the evacuation of Chersonesos, is baptized (either in Chersonesos or in Kiev) prior to the wedding, taking the Christian name Basil as a compliment to his imperial brother-in-law.

The sacrament is followed by his marriage with the Greek princess.

The Russians, who have adapted the Greek rite, and the papacy, exchange legates.

East Central Europe (988–999 CE): Expansion of Bolesław I’s Poland, Stephen I’s Rise in Hungary, and Bohemian Ecclesiastical Independence

Between 988 and 999 CE, East Central Europe—comprising present-day Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and the eastern portions of Germany and Austria east of 10°E and north of the defined southeastern boundary—entered a decisive era marked by territorial expansions, dynastic consolidation, and crucial religious transformations. Bolesław I "the Brave" strengthened and expanded the early Polish state, Stephen I emerged as a pivotal ruler transforming Hungary into a Christian kingdom, and Bohemia achieved ecclesiastical independence with the founding of the Bishopric of Prague (973), consolidating Přemyslid power under Boleslaus II.

Political and Military Developments

Expansion and Consolidation under Bolesław I of Poland

• Following Mieszko I’s death in 992, his son Bolesław I "the Brave" (r. 992–1025) rapidly expanded Polish territories, securing control over Silesia, Lesser Poland, and parts of Moravia. His military and diplomatic skill established Poland as a major political power in East Central Europe.

Rise of Stephen I in Hungary

• In 997 CE, following Prince Géza’s death, his son Stephen I (997–1038) ascended as ruler, dramatically accelerating Hungary’s transition to a centralized Christian monarchy. Stephen consolidated political authority, established royal administration, and actively promoted Christianity as Hungary's state religion.

Bohemian Ecclesiastical Autonomy

• Under Boleslaus II (r. 972–999), Bohemia strengthened its political and ecclesiastical autonomy. The establishment of the Bishopric of Prague in 973 CE, fully functioning by the late 980s and 990s, significantly reinforced Bohemian sovereignty and religious independence from the Ottonian Empire.

Ottonian Instability and Regional Influence

• The premature death of Otto II (983) and the minority of his son Otto III (983–1002) led to temporary imperial instability, offering Bohemia and Poland opportunities for independent political assertion and territorial expansion.

Economic and Technological Developments

Increased Economic Prosperity and Commerce

• Political stability, particularly in Poland and Hungary, spurred economic growth and flourishing trade routes, facilitating extensive commerce in metals, textiles, amber, and agricultural products across the region.

Expansion of Urban Centers and Fortifications

• Increased investment in fortifications, castles, and urban centers in Poland (Gniezno, Kraków, Poznań), Hungary (Esztergom, Székesfehérvár), and Bohemia (Prague) significantly enhanced security, administration, and economic vitality.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Development of Polish Royal Culture

• Bolesław’s patronage promoted a distinctive Polish royal culture, evident in ecclesiastical architecture, monasteries, and illuminated manuscripts, deepening Poland’s integration into European Christian traditions.

Hungarian Christian and Royal Foundations

• Under Stephen I’s emerging rule, Hungary experienced rapid cultural transformation, establishing churches, monasteries, and royal foundations that reflected a blending of Magyar traditions with Western Christian influences.

Bohemian Cultural Flourishing

• Boleslaus II’s support for ecclesiastical institutions and cultural production significantly enriched Bohemian culture, reflected in artistic patronage, architecture, and manuscript illumination.

Settlement and Urban Development

Growth of Polish Urban Centers

• Polish cities expanded notably under Bolesław, particularly Gniezno, Kraków, and Poznań, becoming central administrative and ecclesiastical hubs that supported burgeoning urban life.

Hungarian Administrative Centralization

• Stephen I intensified development of administrative and religious centers in Hungary, notably at Esztergom and Székesfehérvár, facilitating Hungary’s transformation into a structured kingdom.

Expansion of Bohemian Settlements

• Prague and other Bohemian towns grew significantly, supported by the bishopric's establishment, becoming critical religious, administrative, and commercial centers.

Social and Religious Developments

Consolidation of Christian Identity

• Christian institutions deepened their societal influence in Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia. Monasteries and bishoprics became key institutions shaping governance, education, and social organization, solidifying Christianity’s dominant role.

Strengthening Dynastic and Aristocratic Structures

• Aristocratic and dynastic hierarchies in Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia became clearly defined and powerful, shaping regional governance and laying enduring foundations for medieval societal structures.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era 988–999 CE proved pivotal in the formation of medieval East Central Europe. Bolesław’s Poland emerged as a significant political power, Stephen I prepared Hungary to become a stable Christian monarchy, and Bohemia solidified its cultural and ecclesiastical independence. These developments decisively reshaped regional politics, culture, and religious identities, profoundly influencing East Central Europe’s medieval trajectory.

Communication between Constantinople and Cairo results in the Empire’s negotiation of a ten-year peace with the Fatimid caliphate.

The Christian Greek empire opens a dialogue with the Muslim Arab Hamdanids of northern Syria.

Eastern Southeast Europe (988–999 CE): Continued Bulgarian-Byzantine Conflict and Regional Shifts

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Ongoing Demographic Stability

Between 988 and 999 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe continued to experience demographic stability. Population distributions remained steady, despite the persistent military and political tensions resulting from ongoing Bulgarian-Byzantine hostilities.

Political and Military Developments

Intensified Bulgarian-Byzantine Conflicts

The Bulgarian-Byzantine War continued with increased intensity, marking the persistent efforts of Emperor Basil II to subdue the resilient Bulgarian state completely. Significant military engagements defined this era, as Byzantine forces steadily gained strategic advantages, setting the stage for Bulgaria’s eventual subjugation.

Basil II's Strategic Advances

Emperor Basil II solidified his position and intensified his military strategy against Bulgaria. His systematic campaigns were aimed at weakening Bulgarian military power, reclaiming lost territories, and reasserting Byzantine dominance over the Balkans.

Economic and Technological Developments

Persistent Economic Pressures

The ongoing military conflicts between the Bulgarian and Byzantine Empires continued to strain regional economies, particularly affecting trade routes and agricultural productivity. However, core economic activities, notably local crafts and trade in fortified towns, persisted resiliently amid warfare.

Strategic Fortification and Infrastructure

Continued investments in military fortifications, infrastructure enhancement, and logistical organization were critical during this period, particularly as the Byzantine Empire prepared for extended military campaigns in Bulgaria.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Resilient Cultural Expression

Despite intense warfare, cultural and artistic activities maintained resilience. Artisans in regional centers continued their crafts, particularly ceramics, metalwork, and manuscript illumination, preserving the region’s vibrant cultural identity and heritage.

Scholarly and Literary Continuity

Educational institutions and scholarly communities in both Byzantine and Bulgarian territories maintained active intellectual traditions. Ongoing manuscript production preserved classical texts and theological writings, reinforcing cultural continuity despite military upheaval.

Social and Religious Developments

Continued Dominance of Orthodox Christianity

Orthodox Christianity maintained its central role as a stabilizing influence, significantly shaping societal cohesion and providing spiritual guidance during persistent regional conflict. Ecclesiastical institutions remained pivotal in maintaining social order.

Influence of Bogomilism

The Bogomil movement remained influential, especially among rural populations, fostering significant religious discussions and societal debates. This dualistic religious movement continued challenging established Orthodox practices and shaping regional religious life.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 988 to 999 CE marked a crucial phase in the prolonged Bulgarian-Byzantine conflict, characterized by Emperor Basil II’s determined military campaigns and Bulgaria’s increasingly defensive stance. The era set the stage for Bulgaria’s eventual submission and profoundly influenced the geopolitical and cultural trajectories of Eastern Southeast Europe in subsequent decades.

Arab calligrapher Ibn al-Bawwab reputedly invents the cursive rayhani and muhaqqaq Arabic scripts and refines several of the calligraphic styles invented a century earlier by Ibn Muqlah, including the naskhi and tawqi scripts.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (988–999 CE): Al-Mansur’s Military Campaigns, Papal Reforms, and Continued Scholarly Vitality

The era 988–999 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is defined by significant military expansions under Al-Mansur in Al-Andalus, ongoing papal reforms in Rome, and sustained cultural and intellectual flourishing throughout the region.

Al-Mansur’s Military Expansion in Al-Andalus

Under the powerful leadership of Al-Mansur ibn Abi Aamir (known in Christian Europe as Almanzor), effective ruler of Al-Andalus from 978 until his death in 1002, the Caliphate of Córdoba undertakes aggressive military campaigns against the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia. Notably, Al-Mansur captures significant Christian strongholds, including Barcelona (985) and Santiago de Compostela (997). His campaigns greatly expand Cordoban influence and reinforce the political dominance of the Caliphate.

Papal Reform Efforts and Restoration of Authority

In Rome, the papacy continues the gradual recovery from the Saeculum obscurum, actively pursuing internal reforms to restore moral integrity and political independence. Under Pope Gregory V (996–999), the first German pope appointed through the influence of Emperor Otto III, significant strides are made towards institutional reform, increasing the papacy's spiritual authority and strengthening its diplomatic position within the broader European context.

Scholarly and Medical Advancements

Scholarly life flourishes throughout Al-Andalus, with continued contributions from eminent figures like Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Albucasis), whose influential medical text, al-Tasrif, remains widely respected. Jewish scholarship, particularly in Lucena, continues to thrive, while Mozarab communities sustain their role in intellectual exchange, preserving and enriching the region's cultural heritage.

Economic Stability and Technological Continuation

Economic stability persists, supported by ongoing technological innovations, notably the use of the Catalan forge, facilitating enhanced iron production. These advancements underpin continued agricultural prosperity, urban development, and military capabilities, reinforcing the region’s stable economic foundations.

Legacy of the Era

The era 988–999 CE highlights the aggressive military expansion under Al-Mansur in Al-Andalus, ongoing efforts at papal reform and recovery in Rome, and enduring intellectual and cultural vitality. These developments shape the historical trajectory of Mediterranean Southwest Europe as the region moves toward the complexities of the approaching second millennium.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (988–999 CE): Almanzor’s Peak Raids, Shifting Regional Alliances, and Local Resilience

Between 988 and 999 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—including Galicia, northern and central Portugal, Asturias, Cantabria, and northern Spain south of the Franco-Spanish border (43.05548° N, 1.22924° W)—endured one of its most turbulent eras, primarily characterized by intensified raids led by Almanzor (Al-Mansur), the powerful military commander of the Caliphate of Córdoba. Almanzor’s aggressive campaigns severely impacted regional stability, notably targeting Leónese territories and reaching as far as Santiago de Compostela in 997 CE. Simultaneously, political fragmentation within the Kingdom of León, internal rivalries in Pamplona, and resilient local governance in the County of Portugal profoundly influenced regional dynamics, reshaping Iberian political and cultural identities.

Political and Military Developments

Almanzor’s Intensified Campaigns

This era marked the height of Almanzor’s aggressive military campaigns, targeting the Leónese frontier and critical religious and political centers. In 997 CE, Almanzor famously sacked Santiago de Compostela, devastating its cathedral and symbolic heart of Christian Iberia. Although devastating, the attack did not extinguish the pilgrimage tradition; instead, it invigorated regional determination to rebuild and resist future incursions.

Weakness in Leónese Central Authority

Under the young and politically vulnerable King Ramiro III (966–984 CE), León faced internal dissent and weakened royal authority. His successor, Bermudo II (984–999 CE), struggled to assert control against internal factions and external threats. Though capable, Bermudo faced severe limitations due to persistent aristocratic rivalries and regional fragmentation, compromising effective resistance against Almanzor’s campaigns.

Shifting Alliances in Pamplona

The Kingdom of Pamplona, under Sancho II Garcés Abarca (970–994 CE) and subsequently his son, García Sánchez II (994–1000 CE), maintained cautious diplomatic maneuvering amid escalating threats from Córdoba. Pamplona balanced defensive measures and strategic accommodations with Almanzor, limiting damage while safeguarding Basque autonomy and internal stability.

Persistence and Decline of Viguera

The minor Kingdom of Viguera, ruled by Ramiro Garcés, persisted through this era but increasingly diminished in influence. Its continued existence, however, reflected persistent internal dynastic complexities and decentralization within the Basque realm.

Resilient Autonomy in the County of Portugal

The County of Portugal, benefiting from relatively stable local governance and cohesive aristocratic leadership, effectively defended its territories against Cordoban incursions. Under Count Gonçalo Mendes (circa 950–997 CE) and subsequently his son, Mendo Gonçalves (997–1008 CE), the county sustained territorial integrity and internal cohesion, underscoring its growing regional autonomy and foundational Portuguese identity.

Economic Developments

Economic Disruption and Local Adaptation

Almanzor’s relentless raids, especially his devastating attack on Santiago de Compostela in 997 CE, temporarily disrupted local economies and pilgrimage-related commerce. However, resilient local economic systems—primarily villa-based agriculture (grain, vineyards, olives), livestock farming, and artisanal industries—proved robust, rapidly adapting to disruptions and ensuring steady economic recovery.

Maritime Trade Stability

Despite significant inland disruption, coastal settlements, notably Bracara Augusta (Braga) and northern Portuguese ports, maintained stable maritime commerce. These towns continued engaging effectively with Atlantic and Mediterranean markets, mitigating the broader economic impact of Almanzor’s inland campaigns.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Rebuilding Santiago de Compostela (997 CE aftermath)

The devastating attack on Santiago de Compostela by Almanzor in 997 CE, rather than ending the pilgrimage tradition, galvanized regional determination to rebuild. The reconstruction of Santiago began swiftly, reinforcing its symbolic resilience, spiritual centrality, and cultural prominence across Europe.

Ecclesiastical Leadership and Community Stability

Influential bishoprics—particularly Braga, Lugo, Asturica Augusta, and Santiago de Compostela—continued providing essential moral leadership and local governance amid crisis. Ecclesiastical institutions significantly contributed to maintaining community cohesion, regional identity, and social stability during turbulent times.

Monastic Preservation and Scholarly Resilience

Despite external threats, monastic communities continued preserving scholarly traditions, manuscripts, agricultural innovations, and educational activities. Their unwavering continuity significantly sustained regional cultural heritage, intellectual vitality, and historical memory.

Continued Cultural Syncretism

Integration of orthodox Christianity with indigenous Celtic and Iberian traditions persisted robustly, especially in rural Galicia, Asturias, and northern Portugal, reinforcing regional distinctiveness and social resilience in the face of adversity.

Civic Identity and Governance

Strengthened Local Autonomy amid Central Weakness

With weakened central Leónese authority, local aristocracies, ecclesiastical authorities, and community structures increasingly assumed frontline governance, effectively organizing regional defenses and administrative autonomy. Civic identities became deeply rooted in resilient local governance, community solidarity, and decentralized autonomy.

Persistent Basque Independence

Pamplona, under Sancho II Garcés Abarca and García Sánchez II, carefully managed diplomatic relationships, maintaining political independence and internal stability amid external threats. Basque governance, characterized by diplomatic adaptability and internal cohesion, significantly shaped regional political resilience.

Notable Tribal Groups and Settlements

• Astures and Cantabri: Provided essential military resilience, local governance, and cohesive regional identity amid disruptions, actively supporting decentralized defense.

• Galicians and Lusitanians: Demonstrated remarkable local autonomy, economic stability, and cultural resilience, notably contributing to rebuilding efforts after Santiago’s destruction and maintaining the foundations of emerging Portuguese identity.

• Basques (Pamplona): Maintained clear territorial independence, political autonomy, and internal cohesion, effectively managing external pressures through careful diplomatic strategy.

• Viguera (Rioja): Persisted as a minor kingdom, reflecting Basque internal complexities and regional decentralization.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 988 and 999 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Endured intense challenges from Almanzor’s devastating raids, demonstrating regional resilience through localized governance, economic adaptability, and cultural determination.

• Strengthened local civic identities and autonomous governance, laying foundations for subsequent political decentralization and resilience in the face of external threats.

• Reinforced Basque autonomy and Portuguese regional consolidation, decisively shaping subsequent Iberian identities and political structures.

This turbulent yet pivotal era tested regional capacities for resilience, adaptation, and cultural continuity, significantly influencing the medieval trajectory and historical legacy of Atlantic Southwest Europe.