Senusret II, Pharaoh of Egypt (Twelfth Dynasty), who started his rule in about 1897 BCE, founds the town of Kahun near his pyramid tomb complex at el-Lahun.

The "Pectoral of Senusret II", from the tomb of princess Sithathoryunet at el-Lahun, is made around 1895–1878 BCE.

It bears the name 'Khakheperre' which was the prenomen or royal name of this Egyptian king.

Now located in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, this jewelry is made of cloisonné inlays on gold of carnelian, feldspar, garnet, turquoise, lapis lazuli.

Seruset II is succeeded in 1878 by Senusret III.

The reliefs of the Punt expedition under Hatshepsut, depicting seagoing vessels carrying the expeditionary force returning from Punt, the location of which remains a matter of speculation, have given rise to the theory that, at the time, a navigable link existed between the Red Sea and the Nile.

Pharaoh Senusret III (1878 BCE–1839 BCE) of Egypt’s Twelfth Dynasty may have had a west-east river dug through the Wadi Tumilat, joining the Nile with the Red Sea (which at this time reaches north to the Bitter Lakes), allowing direct naval trade with Punt in its presumed East African locale, and, indirectly, linking the Red Sea and the Mediterranean.

However, numerous geological surveys conducted since the mid-1960s have found no physical evidence of any ancient man-made canal (as opposed to natural tributaries) existing in the region and extending from the Nile to the Red Sea.

Senusret II, the fourth pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt, has taken great interest in the Faiyum oasis region.

With the intention of increasing the amount of cultivable land here, he has begun work on an extensive irrigation system from the Bahr Yusuf through to Lake Moeris by means the construction of a dike at Al-Lahun and the addition of a network of drainage canals.

The importance of this project is emphasized by the pharaoh’s decision to move the royal necropolis from Dahshur to Al-Lahun where he builds his pyramid.

This location will remain the political capital of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties of Egypt.

The king also establishes the first known worker's village in the town of nearby town of Kahun whose New Kingdom prototype will be Deir El Medina.

Ruling from 1897 BC to 1878 BCE, he is succeeded by his son, Senusret III.

Egypt began expanding into Nubia during the Middle Kingdom to gain more control over the trade routes in Northern Nubia and direct access to trade with Southern Nubia.

Senusret III, having cleared a navigable canal through the first cataract, relentlessly pushes his kingdom's expansion into Nubia (from 1866 to 1863 BCE) where he erects massive river forts including Buhen, Semna and Toshka at Uronarti.

He carries out at least four major campaigns into Nubia in his Year 8, 10, 16 and 19 respectively.

His Year 8 stela at Semna documents his victories against the Nubians through which he is thought to have made safe the southern frontier, preventing further incursions into Egypt.

Another great stela from Semna dated to the third month of Year 16 of his reign mentions his military activities against both Nubia and Canaan.

In it, he admonishes his future successors to maintain the new border which he has created.

His final Nubian campaign, which is in Year 19, is less successful because the king's forces are caught by the Nile being lower than normal and they have to retreat and abandon their campaign to avoid being trapped in hostile Nubian territory.

Twelfth dynasty ruler Senusret III (1878 to 1839 BCE) further consolidates royal authority by suppressing the provincial rulers and aiding the rise of a bureaucratic and trading middle class.

Gungunum's two successors, Abisare (circa 1905 BCE) and Sumu-el (circa 1894 BCE), both take steps to cut Isin completely off from access to canals.

Isin will quickly lose political and economical force after this period.

Sippar comes under the control of the Babylonian ruling house in 1838.

Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria, another Amorite, is he most powerful ruler in Mesopotamia immediately preceding the rise of Hammurabi of Babylon.

His father Ila-kabkabu ruled a kingdom on the borders of Mari and was an Amorite.

Upon his father's death, the kingdom was inherited by another brother, leaving Shamshi-Adad to build his own from scratch.

He first conquers Shekhna and renames the city Shubat-Enlil.

The modern name of the site is Tell Leilan.

He then seizes the fortress Ekallatum on the left bank of the Tigris.

This is accomplished only on the second try: a first attempt failed, after which Shamshi-Adad fled to Babylon.

He returned eventually and was successful.

This conquest makes it possible for him to control the city-state of Assur, which is a flourishing city that trades heavily with Anatolia.

He puts his first son, Ishme-Dagan I, on the throne of Ekallatum and continues his expansion.

Mount Veniaminof, located on the Alaska Peninsula, experiences a colossal (VEI 6) eruption around 1750 BCE, which leaves a large caldera.

Maritime East Asia (1773–1630 BCE): Decline of the Xia Dynasty and Early Innovations

Between 1773 BCE and 1630 BCE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—undergoes significant transitions, particularly in ancient China, as the legendary Xia Dynasty faces internal decline, setting the stage for dynastic transformation. Concurrently, early cultural innovations, notably the development of traditional Chinese ink, contribute to regional cultural sophistication.

Kong Jia and the Decline of the Xia Dynasty

According to ancient textual sources such as the Bamboo Annals, the Xia Dynasty—traditionally considered China’s earliest hereditary dynasty—experiences substantial internal decline under its fourteenth ruler, Kong Jia, who reigns approximately from 1789 BCE to 1758 BCE. Governing from the Xia capital located at West River, Kong Jia is remembered unfavorably as a ruler excessively preoccupied with superstition, indulgence in alcohol, and pursuits of pleasure.

His ineffective governance and neglect of administrative responsibilities lead to a gradual weakening of centralized royal authority. During and after Kong Jia’s rule, regional vassal kings gain increasing autonomy and power, undermining Xia dominance. This progressive decentralization of authority continues throughout subsequent generations, ultimately leading to the dynasty’s downfall when the powerful vassal king, Tang of Shang, overthrows the last Xia ruler, Jie, establishing the Shang Dynasty in approximately 1618 BCE.

Early Chinese Ink Traditions

Around the same era, notable cultural advancements occur within Lower East Asia, specifically in the early development of Chinese ink. Historical evidence traces ink-making traditions back to approximately the 18th century BCE, featuring the use of naturally derived inks made from plants (plant dyes), animals, and mineral sources such as graphite. These materials are ground with water to produce inks applied using specially crafted brushes, laying critical foundations for future literary, artistic, and cultural expression throughout China and, eventually, broader East Asia.

The emergence of these early inks underscores the increasing sophistication of cultural practices within the region, marking significant steps toward later artistic and literary traditions.

Legacy of the Era: Dynastic Transition and Cultural Innovation

Thus, the period 1773–1630 BCE marks a critical era in Maritime East Asia’s early historical trajectory. The gradual collapse of the Xia Dynasty—symbolized by Kong Jia’s ineffective reign—paves the way for major political transformations, while concurrent innovations such as early ink-making practices highlight the region’s advancing cultural complexity. These developments significantly shape the historical and cultural evolution of Lower East Asia in subsequent periods.