The Qing forces, while morale of the…

Choros Erdeniin Galdan, a Dzungar-Oirat Khan of the Dzungar Khanate, is the fourth son of Erdeni Baatur Hongtaiji, founder of the Dzungar Khanate.

Galdan's mother Amin-Dara was a daughter of Güshi Khan, the first Khoshut-Oirat King of Tibet and fourth Wênsa Zhügu.

As a youth, Galdan had been sent to Lhasa to be educated as a lama under the fifth Dalai Lama.

When Galdan heard that his eldest brother, Sengge, had been murdered by a half brother, Tseten, he had renounced his status as a lama and quickly returned to the Irtysh Valley to avenge his brother's death.

Galdan had been granted the title, Hongtaiji, in 1671 by the Dalai Lama.

After victory over Ochirtu Khan, the Dalai Lama had given Galdan the highest title of Boshughtu Khan.

During Galdan's rule, Dzungaria embraces Eastern Turkistan and parts of Central Asia, which he conquers by 1679.

He is the founder of Kobdo city, which is his military garrison.

To commemorate the city's deliverance from the Great Plague and later waves of the disease, the Viennese will erect monuments such as the famous Baroque Karlskirche with the associated sixty-nine foot-plague columns known as the Pestsäule.

Special hospitals for both children and adults are created bey a religious order operating in Vienna, the Brotherhood of the Holy Trinity, during the 1679 epidemic.

The basic nursing care offered in the hospitals is simple, but is generally a vast improvement over other medical and public health measures in the city.

Doctors treat patients by using emetics, bloodletting, and by applying noxious ointments.

The corpses of plague victims are carted to the outer edges of the city and placed in large open pits for burning.

However, the pits are exposed to the open air for several days until they are nearly full, allowing ongoing infection of the rat population.

The plague often carries the title "Viennese death" in other parts of Europe, as conditions in the city are considered so unhealthy and filthy, even for the time.

Vienna has suffered from episodic plague outbreaks since the first wave of "Black Death" in the fourteenth century.

Located on the River Danube, a major trading crossroads between east and west, the city is crowded and densely built.

Descriptions indicate that there are no public sewers or drainage systems, with stinking mounds of domestic garbage littering the streets.

In addition, warehouses for trade goods, which hold items such as clothing, carpets, and grain for months at a time, are heavily infested with rats.

The population of São Salvador has dispersed into the mountaintop fortresses of the rival kings: the Mountain of Kibangu east of the capital and the fortress of the Águas Rosadas, a line founded in the 1680s from descendants of Kinlaza and Kimpanzu, the region of Mbula or Lemba where a line founded by the Kinlaza pretender, Pedro III rules; and Lovota a district in southern Soyo that shelters a Kimpanzu lineage whose head is Doña Suzanna de Nóbrega.

Finally, D Ana Afonso de Leão will found her own center on the Mbidizi River at Nkondo and guide her junior kinsmen to reclaim the country, even as she seeks to reconcile the hostile factions.

In the interim, however, tens of thousands fleeing the conflict or caught up in the battles are deported as slaves to English, French, Dutch and Portuguese merchants every year.

One stream leads north to Loango, whose merchants, known as Vili (Mubires in the period) carry them primarily to merchants from England and the Netherlands, and others are taken to Luanda where they are sold to Portuguese merchants bound for Brazil.

Due to the violent religious controversy that Catholic missionaries had caused in Ethiopia under the reign of his grandfather Susenyos, Emperor Yohannes acts harshly towards Europeans.

He had in 1669 directed Gerazmach Mikael to expel all of the Catholics still living in Ethiopia; those who did not embrace the beliefs of the Ethiopian Church were exiled to Sennar.

Six Franciscans, sent by Pope Alexander VII to succeed in converting Ethiopia to Catholicism where the Jesuits had failed thirty years before, were executed during his reign.

As a result, he favors Armenian visitors, whose beliefs also embrace Miaphysitism, and are in harmony with the Ethiopian Church.

These include one Murad, who has undertaken a number of diplomatic missions for the Emperor; and in 1679, Yohannes receives the Armenian bishop Yohannes, bearing a relic of Ewostatewos.

Pope Innocent in 1679 publicly condemns sixty-five propositions, taken chiefly from the writings of Escobar, Suarez and other casuists (mostly Jesuit casuists, who had been heavily attacked by Pascal in his Provincial Letters) as propositiones laxorum moralistarum and forbids anyone to teach them under penalty of excommunication.

He condemns in particular the most radical form of mental reservation (stricte mentalis) which authorizes deception without an outright lie.

Livorno, or Leghorn, which had become a free port in 1675, plays an important role in the history of the Jews in Italy through the close links it maintains with the Jewish communities of the Ottoman Empire in Smyrna, Tunis, Tripoli, and Salonika.

Jules Hardouin-Mansart, born Jules Hardouin, had studied under his renowned great-uncle François Mansart, one of the originators of the classical tradition in French architecture; Hardouin had inherited Mansart's collection of plans and drawings and adopted his well-regarded name.

He had also learned from Libéral Bruant, architect of the royal veteran's hospital in Paris known as Les Invalides.

Hardouin-Mansart serves as Louis XIV's chief architect, first enlarging the royal château of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, then at Versailles from 1675.

Becoming the surintendant des Bâtiments du Roi (Superintendent of royal works), he will design all the extensions and reconstructions at Versailles for the King, including the north and south wings, the Royal Chapel (with Robert de Cotte, 1710), and the celebrated Hall of Mirrors decorated by Charles Le Brun, his collaborator.

Outside the château proper, he builds the Grand Trianon and the Orangerie, as well as subsidiary royal dwellings not far away, such as the Château de Marly (begun in 1679).

Native tribes had occupied the Duluth area for thousands of years.

The original inhabitants are believed to have been members of Paleo-Indian cultures, followed by the "Old Copper" people, who hunted with spear points and knives and fished with metal hooks.

Around two thousand years ago, the Woodlands people, known for their burial mounds and pottery, occupied the area.

They also cultivated wild rice, a crop that continues to be harvested today by Ojibwa tribes in the region and is often seen being sold in the area.

At the beginning of this age, the Cheyenne, Arapaho, Ojibway and Cree still lived above Lake Superior, north of the Kickapoo, Menominee, Sauk and Fox nations—Algonquian speakers all.

The Siouan Assiniboin and Lakota nations, speakers of Iroquoian language who will later dominate the northeastern Plains, were, like their Winnebago kin, presumably still in Wisconsin and Upper Michigan.

The Sioux had inhabited the region until the middle of the seventeenth century and there had been an Indian village, known as Wi-ah-quah-ke-che-qume-eng at present day Fond du Lac, in about 1630.

The Ojibwa had driven the Sioux out soon after 1654, after being forced from eastern seaboard areas by the Iroquois.

Duluth's name in Ojibwe is Onigamiinsing ("at the little portage") due to the small and easy portage across Minnesota Point between Lake Superior and western St. Louis Bay forming Duluth's harbor.

According to Ojibwa oral history, Spirit Island located near the Spirit Valley neighborhood was the "Sixth Stopping Place" where the northern and southern branches of the Ojibwa Nation came together and then proceeded to their "Seventh Stopping Place" near the present city of La Pointe, Wisconsin.

Pierre Esprit Radisson and Médard Chouart des Groseilliers had gone searching in 1659 for furs in the Lake Superior region, and had visited the area that became today’s Duluth.

Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, the city's namesake, born in 1639 Saint-Germain-Laval, near Lyon, France, had first visited New France in 1674 after more than seventeen years of military service in Europe.

He had left Montreal in September 1678 for Lake Superior, spending the winter near Sault Sainte Marie and reaching the western end of the lake in the fall of the following year where he concludes peace talks between the Ojibwe and Sioux nations.

His mission being the advancement of fur trading missions in the area, his work allows for this to occur, with the Ojibwa becoming middlemen between the French and the Lakota.

As a result, the area prospers.