The Treaty of Hudaybiyah had initiated a…

The Treaty of Hudaybiyah had initiated a truce between the Muslim forces in Medina and the Qurayshite forces in control of Mecca.

Badhan, the Sassanid governor of Yemen, had converted to Islam and many of the southern Arabian tribes have also joined the rising power in Medina.

The prophet Muhammad is therefore free to focus on the Arab tribes in the Bilad al-Sham to the north.

According to later Muslim historians, Muhammad in the year 629 dispatched three thousand of his troops to the area in Jumada al-awwal for a quick expedition to attack and punish the tribes.

The army is led by Zayd ibn Haritha; the second-in-command is Jafar ibn Abi Talib and the third-in-command is Abdullah ibn Rawahah.

The leader of the Ghassanids is said to have received word of the expedition and prepared his forces; he also sends to Constantinople for aid.

Muslim historians report that the emperor Heraclius gathered an army and hurried to the aid of his Arab allies.

Other sources say that the leader was the emperor's brother, Theodore.

The combined force of Roman soldiers and Arab allies is usually reported to be approximately two hundred thousand.

When the Muslim troops arrive at the area to the east of Jordan and learn of the size of the imperial army, they want to wait and send for reinforcements from Medina.

Abdullah ibn Rawahah reminds them about their desire for martyrdom and questions the move to wait when what they desire is awaiting them, so they continue marching towards the waiting army.

The Muslims engage the imperial troops at their camp by the village of Musharif, then withdraw towards Mu'tah, wheri the two armies fight.

Some Muslim sources report that the battle was fought in a valley between two heights, which negated the imperial forces’ numerical superiority.

All three Muslim leaders fall one after the other during the battle as they take command of the force: first, Zayd ibn Haritha, then Jafar ibn Abi Talib, then Abdullah ibn Rawahah.

Al-Bukhari reported that there were fifty stab wounds in Jafar's body, none of them in the back.

After the death of the latter, some of the Muslim soldiers begin to rout.

Thabit ibn Al-Arqam, seeing the desperate state of the Muslim forces, takes up the banner and rallies his comrades, and manages to save the army from complete destruction.

The troops after the battle asked Thabit ibn Al-Arqam to assume command; however, he declines and asked Khalid ibn al-Walid to take the lead.

Khalid ibn Al-Walid reported that the fighting was so intense that he used nine swords, which broke in the battle.

Khalid, seeing that the situation is hopeless, prepares to withdraw.

He continues to engage the imperial troops in skirmishes, but avoids pitched battle.

He completely changes his troop positions one night and brings forth a rearguard that he has equipped with new banners; all this is intended to give the impression that reinforcements have arrived from Medina.

He also orders his cavalry to retreat behind a hill during the night, hiding their movements, and then to return during daytime when the battle resumes, raising as much dust as they can.

This also is intended to create the impression that further reinforcements are arriving.

The imperial forces believe in the fictitious reinforcements and withdraw, thus allowing the Muslim force to safely retreat to Medina.

Military commentators on the battle have often praised the skirmishing tactics of Khalid ibn al-Walid.

Because the engagement an imperial victory, there is no apparent reason to make changes to the military configuration of the region.

Also, once the severity of the Muslim threat is realized, the imperial forces have little preceding battlefield experience with the Arabs, and even less with zealous soldiers united by a prophet.

Even the Strategicon, a manual of war praised for the variety of enemies it covers, does not mention warfare against Arabs at any length.